﻿{
    "Title": "The history of genetics: from Darwin to the 21st century",
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    "Body": "\n<p>\nExplore the key events which shaped what we understand about genetics with this interactive timeline. It features digitised books and archives from&nbsp;<a title=\"Codebreakers: Makers of Modern Genetics\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/\">Codebreakers: Makers of Modern Genetics</a>, as well as websites and&nbsp;landmark papers&nbsp;in the history of science.&nbsp; \n</p>\n<p>\nMany of the events in the timeline connect to digitised content from the Wellcome Library website. You may be asked to login to view some items from the archives. <a href=\"https://catalogue.wellcome.ac.uk/selfreg\">Join the Library</a> for a member login, or login with a Twitter, Facebook, Google or OpenID account.\n</p>",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nEvolution had been a topic of vigorous debate in the early 19th century. From his travels in East Asia, in 1858 Alfred Russel Wallace reported similar conclusions to those Charles Darwin had begun to formulate since his voyage to South America on the Beagle: that species arise as a result of natural selection. Darwin's friends persuaded him to publish his work. In 'On the Origin of Species', Darwin argued that those individuals that are best adapted to survive in their environments are most likely to breed successfully, and so pass on their beneficial traits to future generations. Over the eons of geological time this could lead to new species. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"On the origin of species 1859\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b1802922x#0/5/-0.6813,0,2.3626,1.457\" target=\"_blank\">Read&nbsp;'On&nbsp;the Origin of Species'&nbsp;&nbsp;</a>\n</p>\n",
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          "LinkText": "Read 'On the Origin of Species'",
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          "Title": "Charles Darwin publishes 'On the Origin of Species'",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nCyrill Napp, the Augustinian abbot of St Thomas's Abbey in Brünn (modern Brno, in the Czech Republic) took a keen interest in the breeding of sheep. He encouraged a friar, Gregor Mendel, to explore questions of heredity by breeding pea plants. Mendel crossed varieties with different characteristics, such as smooth or wrinkled seed cases, and discovered that in most cases characteristics did not blend, but continued to appear in subsequent generations in predictable ratios. He found that 'dominant' characteristics would appear even if inherited from only one parent, while offspring showed 'recessive' characteristics only if they inherited them from both parents. He published his work in the journal of his local natural history society. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Experiments in plant hybridisation\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18019857#0/62/-0.8786,0,2.7574,1.3733\" target=\"_blank\">Read&nbsp;Mendel's 'Experiments in plant hybridisation'</a>&nbsp; (translated by William Bateson) \n</p>",
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          "Year": "1866",
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          "Title": "Gregor Mendel publishes his theory of inheritance",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nFrancis Galton, an independent scientist in London and Charles Darwin's cousin, became convinced that Darwin's theory of natural selection applied as much to human ability as to the formation of species. He looked for evidence for this idea by analysing the pedigrees of distinguished judges, poets, statesmen, scientists and sportsmen. In 'Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into its Causes and Consequences', he applied statistical ideas such as error frequencies to show that human abilities were inherited. Concluding that such abilities might be improved by selective breeding, he later coined the term 'eugenics' to denote this practice. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Hereditary genius\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18023745#0/0\">Read 'Hereditary Genius'&nbsp;</a>\n</p>",
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          "Year": "1869",
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          "Title": "Francis Galton publishes 'Hereditary Genius'",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nFriedrich Miescher was a young Swiss physiological chemist working in Tübingen, Germany. Within a year of starting work he had isolated an acidic, phosphorus-rich component from the nuclei of white cells (leukocytes) which he had harvested from pus. He called the new substance nuclein: it was subsequently renamed nucleic acid. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Discovering DNA: Friedrich Miescher and the early years&#13;&#10;of nucleic acid research in 'Human Genetics' journal\" href=\"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00439-007-0433-0\" target=\"_blank\">Access an&nbsp;article about Miescher and early nucleic acid research<br /></a>\n</p>",
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          "Year": "1871",
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          "Title": "Friedrich Miescher publishes his discovery of 'nuclein'",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn his book 'On the Origin of Species', Charles Darwin had not explicitly state that humans were descended from apes, although Carl Linnaeus had classified both as primates in the 18th century, and others, including Jean Baptiste Lamarck, had suggested that they were related by descent. In his later book 'The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex', Darwin made the link explicit, and discussed many aspects of the question including sexual selection, race, the evolution of behaviour and the implications of evolution for society. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Descent of man 1875\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18034809#0/9/-0.6055,0,2.2111,1.3636\" target=\"_blank\">Read 'The Descent of Man'&nbsp;</a>\n</p>",
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          "Year": "1871",
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          "Title": "Charles Darwin proposes that humans are descended from apes",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\n&nbsp;Walther Flemming, professor of anatomy at Kiel in Germany, used new dyes to stain cells and then examined the structures in the nucleus. He observed the whole process of cell division (which he termed 'mitosis'), noting that thread-like structures formed and then separated to the two poles of the dividing cell. Flemming published his findings in 1882 in 'Zell-substanz, Kern und Zelltheilung' ('Cytoplasm, Nucleus and Cell Division'). He coined the term 'chromatin' ('stainable material'), which is still in use today. The word 'chromosome' (meaning 'coloured body') was not introduced until 1888, when German anatomist Wilhelm Waldeyer used it to describe the thread-like bodies in the nucleus. \n</p>\n<p>\nImage from 'Zellsubstanz, kern und zelltheilung' by Walther Flemming, 1882. <a title=\"From 'Zellsubstanz, kern und zelltheilung' by Walther Flemming, 1882\" href=\" http://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/image/L0023905.html\" target=\"_blank\">WI no. L0023905</a>\n</p>",
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          "Year": "1882",
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          "Title": "Walther Flemming discovers mitosis and chromosomes",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nAugust Weismann, professor of zoology at the University of Freiburg, published an essay entitled 'On the continuity of the germ plasm'. This outlined the evidence he had amassed that there is continuity between generations only through the egg and sperm (germ) cells, and that environmental influences that affect other body (somatic) cells cannot be transmitted to the germ cells. This separation became known as 'Weismann's barrier', and was a strong argument against the inheritance of acquired characteristics as proposed by Jean Baptiste Lamarck. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"On germinal selection as a source of definite variation\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18023939#0/0\" target=\"_blank\">Read Weismann's book&nbsp;'On Germinal Selection as a source of Definite Variation' <br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1885",
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          "Title": "August Weismann states that all inheritance is via the germ cells",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn his book 'Natural Inheritance', Francis Galton proposed that offspring receive half their inherited characteristics from each parent, a quarter from each grandparent and so on. This offered a statistical model for the reemergence in offspring of characteristics not seen in their parents. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Natural inheritance\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18024804#0/7/-0.6559,0,2.3117,1.4256\" target=\"_blank\">Read 'Natural Inheritance'&nbsp;</a>\n</p>",
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          "Year": "1889",
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          "Title": "Francis Galton publishes his law of ancestral inheritance",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nGregor Mendel had published his 'Experiments in Plant Hybridisation' in 1866, but his research was known only among fellow plant breeders. It was not until 16 years after his death in 1884 that his work was more widely acknowledged, when three competing European botanists published their work and recognised Mendel's priority. Hugo de Vries in Holland, Carl Correns in Germany and Erich Tschermak von Seysenegg in Austria had made similar observations on the segregation and recombination of observable characters, although they reached stronger conclusions about the existence of physical hereditary units that explained those characters. By 1902, the English geneticist William Bateson had translated Mendel's articles into English and argued strongly in their favour. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Mendel's principles of heredity\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18019857#0/9/0,-0.0624,1,1.498\" target=\"_blank\">Read 'Mendel's Principles of Heredity' by William Bateson<br /></a>\n</p>",
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          "Year": "1900",
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          "Title": "Mendel’s work is acknowledged",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nWorking in Vienna, Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood samples from his colleagues behaved differently when mixed together. In some mixtures the red cells clumped together; in others they did not. He deduced that the cells had different surface antigens, which he called A and B, and that the blood serum contained antibodies against 'foreign' blood group antigens. A further blood type, O, was accepted by A or B types. The AB type, discovered later by two of his colleagues, contained both antigens and accepted any other type. This discovery led to the first&nbsp; blood transfusion to employ blood typing and cross-matching (in 1907), and blood group became important as an inherited characteristic in genetics reseach. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Blood transfusion groups\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b16763555\" target=\"_blank\">Watch a video on 'Blood Transfusion Groups'<br /></a>\n</p>",
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          "Year": "1901",
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          "Title": "Karl Landsteiner discovers ABO blood group system",
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          "Body": "Archibald Garrod, a London physician working at the Great Ormond Street children's hospital in London, studied alkaptonuria, a disease in which urine exposed to air turns dark after several hours. Noting that in three of the four families he studied the parents were first cousins, Garrod concluded that the inheritance of alkaptonuria could be explained by Mendel's laws, and was a recessive disorder. Later, he described four 'inborn errors of metabolism': albinism, alkaptonuria, pentosuria and cystinuria. His book on the subject was first published in 1909 and revised in 1923.<br />",
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          "Title": "Archibald Garrod links alkaptonuria to Mendel's laws",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nWalter Sutton, a 25-year-old graduate student at Columbia University, was studying the chromosomes of the grasshopper Brachystola magna. He concluded that chromosomes were of distinct types, that they occurred in pairs, with one member of each pair contributed by each parent, and that the paired chromosomes separated as germ cells formed, and must rejoin at fertilisation. In Germany, cytologist Theodor Boveri concluded that male sperm nuclei and female egg nuclei contribute equivalent amounts of genetic information to sea urchin embryos, and that this equivalence was essential to normal development of the larvae. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Sutton article 'chromosomes in heredity'\" href=\"http://www.biolbull.org/content/4/5/231.full.pdf+html\" target=\"_blank\">Read Sutton's original paper on chromosomes in heredity</a> [PDF] \n</p>",
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          "Year": "1902",
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          "Title": "Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri propose chromosome theory of inheritance",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nWriting to the zoologist Adam Sedgwick, the Cambridge biologist William Bateson used the word 'genetics' for the first time to refer to the study of inheritance and its physical basis. He subsequently used it in a speech to the Third International Conference on Hybridisation and Plant Breeding in 1906: the title of the conference proceedings was changed to 'Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics'. \n</p>\n<p>\n<a class=\"action\" title=\"Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18025602#0/0\" target=\"_blank\">Read the 'Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics'<br /></a>\n</p>",
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          "Year": "1905",
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          "Title": "William Bateson coins the term 'genetics'",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe US state of Indiana enacted a law that provided for the sterilisation of inmates in prisons and in institutions for the mentally deficient. The law was struck down by the state Supreme Court in 1921, but reinstated in 1927 and remained on the books until 1974. Following Indiana's lead, a total of 33 states eventually passed such legislation, and it is estimated that 65 000 people were compulsorily sterilised under its provisions.\n</p>\n<p>\t<a title=\"USA sterlisation laws - Eugenics Archive\" href=\"http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/topics_fs.pl?theme=3&search=&matches=\" target=\"_blank\">More about the US sterilisation laws<br /></a>\n</p>",
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          "Title": "First US state enacts compulsory sterilisation law",
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nOn 15 November 1907, Mrs Sibyl Gotto presented a proposal for a Eugenics Education Society to the Committee of the Moral Education League in London. It was agreed to launch the Society as a distinct entity. Sir Francis Galton was appointed as the first President, and Mrs Gotto (later Mrs Neville Rolfe) its Honorary Secretary. In 1926 it was renamed the <a title=\"The Eugenics Society archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/eugenics-society/\">Eugenics Society</a>. \n</p>\n<p><a title=\"Early papers on the formation of the Eugenics Education Society\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b16231740\">Early papers of the Eugenics Society</a> [Login] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1907",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27666",
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          ],
          "Title": "Eugenics Society founded in London",
          "JulianDayStart": 2417577,
          "StartDisplay": "1907",
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          "EventId": 15544
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      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe Cambridge mathematician G H Hardy and the Stuttgart physician Wilhelm Weinberg independently came up with the principle that the frequency of alleles and genotypes remains constant in a population from one generation to the next unless one of a number of influences, such as selection, non-random mating or mutation, occurs to disturb it. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Hardy-Weinberg principle article in Nature.com\" href=\"http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-hardy-weinberg-principle-13235724\" target=\"_blank\">More about the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1908",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1908-Godfrey_Harold_Hardy_100.jpg",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium",
          "JulianDayStart": 2417942,
          "StartDisplay": "1908",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1908",
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          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15560
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      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nKarl Pearson, a pioneering statistical geneticist working at the Galton Laboratory at University College London, launched a serial - the 'Treasury of Human Inheritance' - dedicated to documenting human inherited conditions. The series continued for almost 50 years. Most sections were written by Julia Bell, also at the Galton Laboratory, who trained as a doctor and conducted a substantial body of her own research in genetics. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Treasury of Human Inheritance\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18031900#0/9/-0.7136,0,2.4273,1.2089\" target=\"_blank\">Read the 'Treasury of Human Inheritance' online<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1909",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1909-Head-of-hare-L0031871-100.jpg",
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          ],
          "Title": "Treasury of Human Inheritance launched",
          "JulianDayStart": 2418308,
          "StartDisplay": "1909",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1909",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
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          "EventId": 15581
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      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nDanish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen showed that characteristics such as seed size are variable even in genetically identical plants. He coined the terms 'genotype' and 'phenotype' to distinguish between an organism's inheritance and its appearance, and argued that evolution can act only on variation in the genotype. In his book 'Elemente der exakten Erblichkeitslehre' ('The Elements of an Exact Theory of Heredity'), he rejected the term 'pangene' for the physical unit of heredity, and suggested 'gene' in its place. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Biography of William Johannsen on WJ Centre website\" href=\"http://www.wjc.ku.dk/wilhelm/\" target=\"_blank\">More about Wilhelm Johannsen<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1909",
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          ],
          "Title": "Wilhelm Johannsen coins the term ‘gene’",
          "JulianDayStart": 2418308,
          "StartDisplay": "1909",
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          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15570
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe Director of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York, the zoologist Charles Davenport, founded the Eugenics Record Office as a centre for the study of human heredity. He appointed Harry Laughlin as superintendent of the Office; both were enthusiastic proponents of the compulsory sterilisation of people deemed 'unfit'. The Eugenics Record Office merged with the Station for Experimental Evolution in 1920 to become the Department of Genetics at the Carnegie Institution at Cold Spring Harbor. \n</p>\n<p>\n<a class=\"action\" title=\"Eugenics Record Office in the Eugencis Archive\" href=\"http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/topics_fs.pl?theme=20&search=&matches=\" target=\"_blank\">More on the Eugenics Record Office<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1910",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Eugenics Record Office opens at Cold Spring Harbor",
          "JulianDayStart": 2418673,
          "StartDisplay": "1910",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1910",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
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          "EventId": 15603
      },
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          "Body": "\n<p>\nAt Columbia University, Thomas Hunt Morgan wanted to know what the physical basis of hereditary factors might be. He chose the fruit fly Drosophila for his studies, as it was cheap, bred quickly and had large chromosomes. When a white-eyed variant spontaneously appeared among the red-eyed 'wild-type' flies, he discovered that its inheritance was linked to the sex of the flies, and so could be assigned to the X chromosome. This was the first unambiguous link between a specific chromosome and an inherited characteristic: many more would follow. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Hunt article on drosophila\" href=\"http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetics/classical/thm-10a.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper: 'Sex-limited inheritance in drosophila'</a> [PDF] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1910",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1910-Morgan-B0001865-100.jpg",
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          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1910-Morgan-B0001865-250",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Thomas Hunt Morgan links white eyes to the X chromosome in fruit flies",
          "JulianDayStart": 2418673,
          "StartDisplay": "1910",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1910",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15590
      },
      {
          "Body": "Working with hybrids of maize, the plant physiologist G N Collins of the US Department of Agriculture showed that two characteristics, known as 'colourless aleurone'  and 'waxy endosperm', were usually inherited together (aleurone and endosperm are components of maize kernels). This observation of 'genetic linkage' contradicted Mendel's law that different characteristics are inherited independently. The search for linkage became one of the most powerful tools in the construction of genetic maps and the study of inherited medical conditions.<br />",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1912",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27101",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27098",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27098",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "G N Collins demonstrates linkage in maize",
          "JulianDayStart": 2419403,
          "StartDisplay": "1912",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1912",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15622
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nMax von Laue, a physicist at the University of Munich, and his colleagues Walter Friedrich and Paul Knipping, showed that passing X-rays through a crystal of copper sulphate or zinc blende gave a diffraction pattern. Before the year ended, William Henry Bragg at the University of Leeds and his son William Lawrence Bragg had discovered that the pattern is related to the three-dimensional arrangement of the atoms in the crystal. In 1913 they published the crystal structure of sodium chloride or common salt, together with a simple formula (now known as Bragg's law) that related the intensity of X-ray reflections to the wavelength of the rays, their angle of incidence to the layers of atoms in the crystal, and the distance between the layers. X-ray crystallography later became the pre-eminent tool in the study of complex biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Bragg articles on x-ray crystal structure from Proceedings of the RS series A\" href=\"http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/89/610.toc\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original papers on x-ray crystal structure</a>\n</p>\n<p>\t<br />\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1912",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1912-X-rays-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1912-X-rays-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1912-X-rays-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "X-rays and crystal structure",
          "JulianDayStart": 2419403,
          "StartDisplay": "1912",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1912",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15612
      },
      {
          "Body": "<a title=\"Alfred Sturtevant biography - DNA Learning Center\" href=\"http://www.dnaftb.org/11/bio.html\">Alfred Sturtevant</a> joined Thomas Hunt Morgan to study Drosophila genetics while still an undergraduate at Columbia University and took up the study of the linkage of genes. He proposed that genes that are closer together are less likely to become separated during 'crossing-over', when pairs of chromosomes from each parent exchange segments during the formation of sperm and egg cells. He calculated the percentages of crossing-over between the various traits and determined the relative distance between six  sex-linked genes on the X chromosome – the first genetic map.<br />",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1913",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27704",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27701",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27701",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Alfred Sturtevant constructs first genetic map",
          "JulianDayStart": 2419769,
          "StartDisplay": "1913",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1913",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15637
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nPassed by the House of Commons by a huge majority, the Mental Deficiency Act provided for the institutionalisation of \"idiots, imbeciles, the feeble minded and moral imbeciles\". Policies for dealing with such \"mental defectives\" were a major preoccupation of the <a title=\"The Eugenics Society archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/eugenics-society/\">Eugenics Society</a>, whose members campaigned in support of the Act. The Act remained in force until the passing of the Mental Health Act in 1959. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Eugenics Education Society annual report 1913-1914\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b16231284#0/3\">Read about the legislation in a Eugenics Education Society annual report</a> [Login] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1913",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28446",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28443",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28443",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "UK Mental Deficiency Act",
          "JulianDayStart": 2419769,
          "StartDisplay": "1913",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1913",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15647
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p><a title=\"The J B S Haldane papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/j-b-s-haldane/\">J B S Haldane</a> was the son of the distinguished respiratory physiologist John Scott Haldane, and from boyhood had acted as his father's experimental subject. While still an undergraduate, working with his sister Naomi at his home in Oxford in the years before World War I, he demonstrated that pink eyes and albino colouring of mice are linked, presumably because the genes are in close proximity on the same chromosome. This was the first demonstration of genetic linkage in a mammal. He wrote the final draft of the paper while in the trenches in Flanders, and it was published in the 'Journal of Genetics'. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Haldane article on albino mice\" href=\"http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/35423#page/201/mode/1up\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1915",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1915-albino-mice-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1915-albino-mice-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1915-albino-mice-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "J B S Haldane shows genetic linkage in a mammal",
          "JulianDayStart": 2420499,
          "StartDisplay": "1915",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1915",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15656
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nWorking in his spare time while employed as a teacher during World War I, the mathematician Ronald Fisher wrote an article on 'The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance'. This paper was one of the founding documents of population genetics, as it showed that continuous variation in traits such as height can arise from Mendelian principles. Fisher subsequently analysed data on plant genetics at the Rothamsted Experimental Station and made important advances in statistics. He was also a prominent eugenicist. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Fisher article on genetics and evolution\" href=\"http://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/15097/1/9.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a> [PDF] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1918",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1918-fisher-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1918-fisher-250.jpg",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1918-fisher-250.jpg",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Ronald Fisher connects Mendelian genetics and evolutionary biology",
          "JulianDayStart": 2421595,
          "StartDisplay": "1918",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1918",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
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          "EventId": 15719
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      {
          "Body": "William Bateson brought together a group of geneticists at the rooms of the Linnaean Society on 25 June, who agreed to found the Genetical Society (later renamed the Genetics Society). The following year, its first annual meeting was held in Cambridge.<br />",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1919",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1919-bateson-100.jpg",
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          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Foundation of the Genetical Society in London",
          "JulianDayStart": 2421960,
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          "EventId": 15730
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      {
          "Body": "Working as Reader in Biochemistry at Cambridge, <a title=\"The J B S Haldane papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/j-b-s-haldane/\">J B S Haldane</a> began a series of highly theoretical papers in the 'Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society' entitled 'A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection', which would continue for a decade. These papers, along with those of R A Fisher and Sewall Wright, would lay the mathematical groundwork for the 'modern synthesis' of Darwin's theory of natural selection and Mendel's laws of inheritance. Haldane later summarised these ideas in a book, 'The Causes of Evolution' (1932).<br />",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1924",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27768",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27761",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27761",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "J B S Haldane begins work on mathematical basis of evolutionary biology",
          "JulianDayStart": 2423786,
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          "EventId": 15747
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      {
          "Body": "Newly qualified as a doctor in London, <a title=\"The Carlos Paton Blacker papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/22588/carlos-paton-blacker/\">Carlos Blacker</a> wrote a series of articles on the implications of contraception in the 'Saturday Review', subsequently published as a book. Blacker, who supported the aims of the <a title=\"The Eugenics Society archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/eugenics-society/\">Eugenics Society</a>, argued that birth control should be permitted, but kept under the control of &quot;medical men&quot;.<br />",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1926",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Publication of Carlos Blacker's 'Birth Control and the State'",
          "JulianDayStart": 2424517,
          "StartDisplay": "1926",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1926",
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          "EventId": 15762
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nUS Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes gave a ruling that state statutes permitting sterilisation of the \"unfit\" without consent did not violate the 14th Amendment of the Constitution (concerning \"due process of law\". He argued that such laws were permissible \"for the protection and health of the state\". Of the defendant Carrie Buck and her mother and daughter, he said: \"Three generations of imbeciles is enough.\" This judgement led to a great increase in the number of compulsory sterilisations across the USA, and was explicitly cited as an influence on the eugenic policies of other countries, including Nazi Germany. \n</p>\n<p>\n<a class=\"action\" title=\"Buck v. Bell eugenics case\" href=\"http://www.hsl.virginia.edu/historical/eugenics/3-buckvbell.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">More about the Buck v. Bell case<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1927",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Buck v. Bell: US Supreme Court rules in favour of forced sterilisation",
          "JulianDayStart": 2424882,
          "StartDisplay": "1927",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1927",
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          "EventId": 15780
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nFrom 1912 to 1920, Hermann Muller was a member of Thomas Hunt Morgan's 'fly room' at Columbia University, seeking to map fruit-fly mutations to specific chromosomes. Later, at the University of Texas, he tested the idea that radiation would increase the frequency of mutations. He irradiated male fruit flies and then mated them to virgin females, publishing his results in 1927. As he said in his Nobel Prize lecture of 1946, the radiation induced \"over a hundred times as many mutations…as would have occurred…spontaneously in the course of a whole generation\". Muller established that most mutations are detrimental, and that favourable mutations on which evolution by natural selection depends must be extremely rare. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Muller, Herman, Nobel Prize lecture\" href=\"http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1946/muller-lecture.html\" target=\"_blank\">Read Muller's Nobel Prize lecture<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1927",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1927-Muller-100.jpg",
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          ],
          "Title": "Radiation induces mutation in fruit flies",
          "JulianDayStart": 2424882,
          "StartDisplay": "1927",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1927",
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          "EventId": 15772
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nFred Griffith, a pathologist at the Ministry of Health in London, noticed that the appearance of colonies of the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (often called pneumococcus) changed from smooth to rough after some time in culture. When injected into mice, the rough cells were harmless, while the smooth cells were invariably fatal unless they had been killed by heat treatment beforehand. But when he injected live rough cells of one strain at the same time as dead smooth cells of a different strain, the mice died and he found them teeming with live smooth bacteria of the second strain. He concluded that previously true-breeding strains could be \"transformed\" by some \"principle\" that could be transferred from one strain to another. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Griffith article on transforming principle\" href=\"http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=4641596\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1928",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1928-Griffin-B0007348-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1928-Griffin-B0007348-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1928-Griffin-B0007348-250",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Fred Griffith discovers transformation in bacteria",
          "JulianDayStart": 2425247,
          "StartDisplay": "1928",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1928",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15790
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nBarbara McClintock, working with student Harriet Creighton at Cornell University, published evidence that the genetic phenomenon of crossing-over, in which genetic variants from each parent are mixed in the offspring, correlated with a physical break and reconnection in the chromosomes of the maize plant. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"McLintock article on jumping genes\" href=\"http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/access/LLBBBY.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a> [PDF] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1931",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1931-corn-cobs-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1931-corn-cobs-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1931-corn-cobs-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Barbara McClintock sees crossing-over in maize",
          "JulianDayStart": 2426343,
          "StartDisplay": "1931",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1931",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15803
      },
      {
          "Body": "<a title=\"The Carlos Paton Blacker papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/22588/carlos-paton-blacker/\">Carlos Blacker</a> had become interested in Francis Galton's theories of eugenic improvement while a student at Oxford. He took on the role of General Secretary of the <a title=\"The Eugenics Society archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/eugenics-society/\">Eugenics Society</a> with the aim of pursuing these theories through scientific research.<br />",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1931",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27798",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27794",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/blacker_240x120.jpg",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Carlos Blacker appointed general secretary of the Eugenics Society",
          "JulianDayStart": 2426343,
          "StartDisplay": "1931",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1931",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15811
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nWhile working at a hospital for people with learning disabilities in Colchester, <a title=\"The Lionel Penrose papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/lionel-penrose/\">Penrose</a> carried out a pioneering survey of patients and their families. He found that people with Down's syndrome (then called mongolism; Penrose later suggested the change of name) were more often born to older parents. Further analysis revealed that the effect was due solely to the age of the mother. The genetic cause of the disease - an extra copy of chromosome 21 - was discovered in 1959. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Penrose article on Down's Syndrome\" href=\"http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jgenet/27/219.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1933",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1933-Downs-syndrome-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1933-Downs-syndrome-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1933-Downs-syndrome-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Lionel Penrose discovers the role of maternal age in Down’s syndrome",
          "JulianDayStart": 2427074,
          "StartDisplay": "1933",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1933",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15819
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nAsbjørn Følling, professor of nutrition at the University of Oslo, examined a brother and sister who had developed signs of severe mental retardation. Their mother had noticed that their urine smelled strongly, and Følling discovered that it contained high levels of phenylpyruvic acid. He concluded that the children's bodies were unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, and that he had discovered a metabolic disorder that affects the brain. The disease was later named phenylketonuria or PKU. Affected children inherit from both parents a recessive gene that fails to make the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Folling video on PKU\" href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JVcbVLUCsqs&list=UUrdcshYZCCPic33ZXhgsgNQ\" target=\"_blank\">Watch a video of Folling talking about his discovery<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1934",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-PKU-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-PKU-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-PKU-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Asbjørn Følling discovers phenylketonuria, an inherited cause of mental retardation",
          "JulianDayStart": 2427439,
          "StartDisplay": "1934",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1934",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15827
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nJ D Bernal, lecturer in structural crystallography in the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge, was using the techniques pioneered by William and Henry Bragg to investigate biological molecules such as sterols. With his PhD student Dorothy Hodgkin, he published the first X-ray diffraction photograph of a protein, the digestive enzyme pepsin, that had been given to him by a visiting scientist. This marked the beginning of structural biology, the branch of science that would reveal the double helix of DNA. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Hodgkin, Dorothy Nobel Prize website\" href=\"http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/perspectives.html\" target=\"_blank\">More about Dorothy Hodgkin and her work<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1934",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-protein-crystallography-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-protein-crystallography-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-protein-crystallography-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "JD Bernal and Dorothy Hodgkin launch protein crystallography",
          "JulianDayStart": 2427439,
          "StartDisplay": "1934",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1934",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15835
      },
      {
          "Body": "R A Fisher, Galton Professor at University College, set up a Serum Unit to collect and study examples of different blood types. He undertook a mathematical analysis of the inheritance of the various different blood group antigens that had been discovered since Landsteiner first described the ABO system in the early 1900s.<br />",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1935",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27989",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27986",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27986",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Serum Unit established at the Galton Laboratory",
          "JulianDayStart": 2427804,
          "StartDisplay": "1935",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1935",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15844
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn the 1930s Soviet Union, Mendelian genetics was regarded as bourgeois and hence politically suspect. The agronomist Trofim Lysenko championed a Marxist-Leninist alternative, a variant of Lamarckism, based on the idea that crop yields could be massively increased by exposing seeds to cold and moisture. Although his experiments were poorly (even fraudulently) conducted, in 1937 he was appointed President of the Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. The Moscow Medical Genetics Institute was closed, and the 7th International Congress of Genetics in Moscow was cancelled. Many geneticists, including Nikolai Vavilov, the former head of the Institute of Applied Botany in Moscow, were shot or died in prison. Lysenkoism dominated Soviet biology until the early 1960s. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Rise and Fall of T D Lysenko\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b1802483\">Read the digitised book 'The Rise and Fall of T D Lysenko'</a><br />\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1937",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27812",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27809",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27809",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Russian genetics under threat",
          "JulianDayStart": 2428535,
          "StartDisplay": "1937",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1937",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15872
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p><a title=\"The J B S Haldane papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/j-b-s-haldane/\">J B S Haldane</a> and his colleague Julia Bell found cases of both haemophilia and colour blindness in six families. They concluded that the genes for the conditions were located near one another on the X chromosome. The study was the first step towards a full genetic map of human inherited conditions. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Haldane article on colour blindness\" href=\"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/123/831/119.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1937",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27133",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27127",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27127",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "J B S Haldane and Julia Bell publish first evidence of linkage in humans",
          "JulianDayStart": 2428535,
          "StartDisplay": "1937",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1937",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15865
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe 7th International Congress of Genetics took place in Edinburgh in August 1939, ending a few days before Britain's declaration of war with Germany. In response to a journalist's question about human genetic improvement, a group of geneticists wrote a manifesto entitled 'Of Men and Mice in Edinburgh'. It declared that the possibility of genetic changes was secondary to addressing social and political problems such as war and deprivation, before giving a critical scientific appraisal of the likely effectiveness of eugenic policies. The original signatories included J B S Haldane. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"geneticists manifesto in Journal of Heredity\" href=\" http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/content/30/9/371.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the geneticists' manifesto</a> [PDF] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1939",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1939-geneticists-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1939-geneticists-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1939-geneticists-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "The geneticists’ manifesto",
          "JulianDayStart": 2429265,
          "StartDisplay": "1939",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1939",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15883
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nAlexander Wiener, working in New York with Karl Landsteiner, who had originally identified the ABO blood group system, discovered that the Rhesus factor that they had identified in 1937 could cause an antibody reaction in blood transfusions. This meant that there were dangers if a mother and her unborn child did not have the same rhesus antigens - so-called haemolytic disease of the newborn. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Wiener's presentation on ABO Blood Groups\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b17409408#0/39\">'The A-B-O Groups: Some Problems and Principles' by Alexander Wiener (1966)</a>\n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp; \n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1940",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27836",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27833",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27833",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Landsteiner and Wiener publish their discovery of the Rhesus factor",
          "JulianDayStart": 2429630,
          "StartDisplay": "1940",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1940",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15891
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nGeorge Beadle and his colleague Edward Tatum at Stanford University in California irradiated the bread mould Neurospora to induce genetic mutations. They found that some of the colonies of mutated organisms could no longer grow on a medium that was nutritionally deficient. By replacing nutrients one by one, Beadle and Tatum discovered which metabolic pathway had been lost. They showed that these failures were due to induced mutations in single genes, establishing the principle that each gene specifies a protein with a precise function. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Beadle and Tatum article on gene and enzyme\" href=\"http://www.pnas.org/content/27/11/499.full.pdf+html\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a> [PDF] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1941",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/30630",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/30627",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/30627",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "‘One gene, one enzyme’",
          "JulianDayStart": 2429996,
          "StartDisplay": "1941",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1941",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15899
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nWorking with the surgeon Tom Gibson at the burns unit in Glasgow Royal Infirmary, <a title=\"The Peter Medawar papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/peter-medawar/\">Peter Medawar</a> studied tissue changes in skin grafts taken either from the patients themselves (autografts) or from a related donor (homografts). He showed that homografts were rejected over a period of weeks, but that later grafts taken from the same donor were rejected immediately. He formulated a theory of the immune mechanisms of rejection that still holds good today. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Medawar paper on skin grafts\" href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1252734/pdf/janat00509-0049.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a> [PDF] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1943",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1943-Medawar-drawing-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1943-medawar-drawing-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1943-medawar-drawing-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Peter Medawar discovers the basis of immune rejection",
          "JulianDayStart": 2430726,
          "StartDisplay": "1943",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1943",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15907
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nArriving at University College London as a refugee from Nazi Germany, <a title=\"The Hans Grüneberg papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/hans-gruneberg/\">Hans Grüneberg</a> established a laboratory in <a title=\"The J B S Haldane papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/j-b-s-haldane/\">J B S Haldane's</a> department investigating the development of mice with a variety of mutations. Forced to suspend his research when UCL was evacuated during World War II, he summarised his findings in a book. It became a standard text on mouse genetics, and was revised and updated in 1952. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Annotated catalogue of mutant genes of the house mouse\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18020446#0/0\" target=\"_blank\">Read an 'Annotated catalogue on mutant genes of the house mouse'</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1943",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1943-gruneberg-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1943-gruneberg-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1943-gruneberg-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Hans Grüneberg publishes The Genetics of the Mouse",
          "JulianDayStart": 2430726,
          "StartDisplay": "1943",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1943",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15915
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nFollowing her 1931 discovery of physical crossing-over, Barbara McClintock showed that genetic elements from the break points can move from one location on a chromosome to another, or even to another chromosome. The rate of appearance of contrasting patches of colour on the leaves of a plant when such transposition has taken place meant that these elements, later known as transposons or jumping genes, could control the activity of neighbouring genes. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"McClintock and her work at the NLM archive\" href=\"http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Collection/CID/LL\" target=\"_blank\">More about Barbara McClintock and her work<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1944",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1944-corn_and_microscope-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1944-corn_and_microscope-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1944-corn_and_microscope-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Barbara McClintock discovers jumping genes",
          "JulianDayStart": 2431091,
          "StartDisplay": "1944",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1944",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15940
      },
      {
          "Body": "The Royal Commission on Population was the first to look seriously at the postwar planning of population and birth-control policies. As General Secretary of the <a title=\"The Eugenics Society archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/eugenics-society/\">Eugenics Society</a> and adviser to the Ministry of Health, <a title=\"The Carlos Paton Blacker papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/22588/carlos-paton-blacker/\">Carlos Blacker</a> played an influential role in establishing this commission. <br />",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1944",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Royal Commission on Population established in UK",
          "JulianDayStart": 2431091,
          "StartDisplay": "1944",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1944",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15949
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nOswald Avery and his colleagues at the Rockefeller Institute in New York State showed that dead, virulent bacteria added to colonies of a live, non-virulent strain transformed the colonies to the virulent form, as Fred Griffith had found in 1928. He purified the 'transforming agent' from the dead bacteria, and tested it with methods that would destroy either protein or nucleic acids. Avery concluded that the transforming agent was made of deoxyribose nucleic acid - DNA. His experiments showed that the transformation was transmitted from generation to generation, but he stopped short of identifying DNA as the physical basis of the gene. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Avery article on transforming power of DNA\" href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2135445/pdf/137.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1944",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1944-bacteria-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1944-bacteria-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1944-bacteria-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Oswald Avery discovers the transforming power of DNA",
          "JulianDayStart": 2431091,
          "StartDisplay": "1944",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1944",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15928
      },
      {
          "Body": "In 1944, <a title=\"The Robert Race and Ruth Sanger papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/robert-race-ruth-sanger/\">Robert Race</a> had published in 'Nature' a prediction that there would be three closely associated pairs of alleles in the Rhesus blood group system (C-c, D-D and E-e), which he developed in discussion with his PhD supervisor at Cambridge, R A Fisher. <a title=\"The Arthur Mourant papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/arthur-mourant/\">Arthur Mourant</a> joined the staff of the North East London Blood supply depot in 1944, as a newly qualified doctor. Testing this prediction, he discovered antibodies to Rhesus e. The discovery helped to confirm Race and Fisher's theory and the discovery of the first gene complex in humans. It also refined the process of blood matching and provided further insight into haemolytic disease of the newborn.<br />",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1945",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26566",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/Mourant-notebook-1945-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/Mourant-notebook-1945-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Arthur Mourant discovers the Rhesus anti-e antibody",
          "JulianDayStart": 2431457,
          "StartDisplay": "1945",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1945",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15964
      },
      {
          "Body": "Working on the bacterium Escherichia coli at Yale with Edward Tatum, Joshua Lederberg adopted the 'nutritional mutant' technique developed by Beadle and Tatum for their studies of the mould Neurospora. He found that, in a small number of mixed colonies, later generations recovered the ability to synthesise the nutrients they needed. He showed that the change was due to genetic crosses between the mutant strains, proving that sexual reproduction had taken place (previously bacteria had been thought to reproduce only by cell division). His work launched a new era in bacterial genetics, and laid the foundation for recombinant DNA technology.<br />",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1946",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1946-ecoli-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1946-ecoli-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1946-ecoli-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Joshua Lederberg describes sexual reproduction in bacteria",
          "JulianDayStart": 2431822,
          "StartDisplay": "1946",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1946",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15973
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe former Galton Laboratory Serum Unit was re-established as the <a title=\"The Medical Research Council Blood Group Unit archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/mrc-blood-group-unit/\">Medical Research Council Blood Group Unit</a> at the Lister Institute in London, under the direction of <a title=\"The Robert Race and Ruth Sanger papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/robert-race-ruth-sanger/\">Robert Race</a>. At the same time, a separate Blood Group Reference Laboratory was set up in the same institute, under the direction of <a title=\"The Arthur Mourant papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/arthur-mourant/\">Arthur Mourant</a>. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"MRC Blood Group Unit photographs\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b17409482\">Photographs from the MRC Blood Group Unit archive</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1946",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27852",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27848",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27848",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "MRC Blood Group Unit established in London",
          "JulianDayStart": 2431822,
          "StartDisplay": "1946",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1946",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15981
      },
      {
          "Body": "In this book, <a title=\"The Hans Grüneberg papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/hans-gruneberg/\">Grüneberg</a> extended his argument for the relevance of genetic studies in mice and other models to our understanding of human disease. After introducing the concept of inherited diseases in general, he went on to discuss the advantages and limitations of working with different inbred strains to tease out the influence of genes on physical characteristics. Topics covered included development, the central nervous system and immunity.<br />",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1947",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Hans Grüneberg publishes 'Animal Genetics and Medicine'",
          "JulianDayStart": 2432187,
          "StartDisplay": "1947",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1947",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15990
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe influence of the agriculturalist Trofim Lysenko in the Soviet Union reached its peak when he denounced genetics as \"a bourgeois pseudoscience\". The Soviet Academy of Sciences banned the teaching of Mendelian genetics throughout the Soviet Union, replacing it with the spurious theories of the neo-Lamarckian I V Michurin. Soviet science would not fully return to the mainstream of genetics research until Lysenko was disgraced and forced to resign from his post in 1965. Joseph Stalin's successor, Nikita Khrushchev, eventually declared that, under Lysenko's leadership, \"Soviet agricultural research spent over 30 years in darkness\". \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Soviet science b18020033\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18020033#0/7/0,-0.0091,1,1.498\" target=\"_blank\">Read&nbsp;a book from the period: 'Soviet Science'</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1948",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1948-Lysenko-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1948-Lysenko-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1948-Lysenko-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "USSR bans genetics",
          "JulianDayStart": 2432552,
          "StartDisplay": "1948",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1948",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 15998
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe American Society of Human Genetics was founded \"to provide leadership in research, education and service in human genetics\". The first President was Herman J Muller. The following year, the first issue of the influential 'American Journal of Human Genetics' appeared, and a meeting has taken place in a major US city every year since. The importance of the Society as a body representing geneticists in the USA was greatly increased with the advent of medical genetics services in the late 1950s; by the 1980s, genetic counselling had grown to such an extent that a new body, the Americal College of Medical Genetics, was founded to represent its practitioners. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"American Society of Human Genetics\" href=\"http://www.ashg.org/pages/about_history.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">The American Society of Human Genetics</a><br />\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1948",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "American Society of Human Genetics founded",
          "JulianDayStart": 2432552,
          "StartDisplay": "1948",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1948",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16006
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nLinus Pauling, a professor of organic chemistry at Caltech, proposed that sickle-cell disease, a recessive disorder inherited in Mendelian fashion, is caused by a small change in the haemoglobin molecule. In the same year, J B S Haldane independently suggested that haemoglobin mutations are selected for in malarial environments, because they provide some protection to carriers who have only one copy of the gene. In 1954, Tony Allison, unaware of Haldane's speculation, provided evidence that this was true. In 1957, Vernon Ingram at the MRC molecular biology unit in Cambridge showed that sickle-cell disease was caused by a single amino acid difference in one of the haemoglobin molecule's protein chains. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Sickle cell anemia a molecular disease\" href=\"http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/blood/papers/1949p.15.html\">Read the original paper</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1949",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1949-sickle-cell-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1949-sickle-cell-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1949-sickle-cell-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Linus Pauling suggests that sickle cell disease is a molecular disorder",
          "JulianDayStart": 2432918,
          "StartDisplay": "1949",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1949",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16023
      },
      {
          "Body": "In the late 1940s it was still not possible to discern the differences between mammalian chromosomes accurately. The Canadian neuroscientist Murray Barr discovered dark-staining bodies in the nuclei of the neurons of female cats. He and his colleague E G Bertram found that they were made of chromosomal material. He confirmed that other female mammals also have these structures, which were later called 'sex chromatin' or 'Barr bodies'. This made it possible to diagnose individuals who had conditions attributed to extra or missing copies of the X chromosome.<br />",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1949",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Murray Barr discovers sex chromatin",
          "JulianDayStart": 2432918,
          "StartDisplay": "1949",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1949",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16015
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nHeaded by Max Perutz, the Unit for Research in the Molecular Structure of Biological Systems at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge was using X-ray crystallography to discover the three-dimensional structure of proteins. On joining the unit, aged 34, <a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick</a> began a new programme of PhD research. His thesis, 'Polypeptides and proteins: X-ray studies', was submitted in July 1953. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Crick's draft dissertation\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18182318\">Read Crick's dissertation in draft</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1949",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27894",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27888",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27888",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Francis Crick joins the Medical Research Council’s unit at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge",
          "JulianDayStart": 2432918,
          "StartDisplay": "1949",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1949",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16031
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nNucleic acids are polymers made up of four nucleotide bases linked to a sugar-phosphate backbone. Erwin Chargaff and Ernst Vischer at Columbia University analysed DNA from different sources and found that the proportions of the four bases - the two purines, adenine (A) and guanine (G), and the two pyrimidines, thymine (T) and cytosine (C) - were not equal. But there were always the same number of As as Ts and the same number of Gs as Cs. Three years later, this observation provided <a title=\"The James Watson papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-watson/\">James Watson</a> and <a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick</a> with a vital insight that led to the discovery of the double helix: that A is always paired with T, and C with G. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Chagraff article on base pair rations\" href=\"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02173653\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1950",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1950-base-pairs-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1950-base-pairs-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1950-base-pairs-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Erwin Chargaff discovers equal base ratios in DNA",
          "JulianDayStart": 2433283,
          "StartDisplay": "1950",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1950",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16039
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\n'Blood Groups in Man' was the first text (and for 25 years the definitive text) on the genetics of the systems of blood group antigens that determine the safety of transfusions. <a title=\"The Robert Race and Ruth Sanger papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/robert-race-ruth-sanger/\">Robert Race</a> was Director of the <a title=\"The Medical Research Council Blood Group Unit archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/mrc-blood-group-unit/\">MRC Blood Group Research Unit</a> at the Lister Institute in London; Sanger was his colleague and later became his wife. The book went through six editions up to 1975. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Blood groups in man b18023964\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18023964#0/5/-1.0039,-0.1992,3.0078,1.8549\" target=\"_blank\">Read 'Blood Groups in Man'&nbsp; </a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1950",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27641",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27638",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27638",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Robert Race and Ruth Sanger publish 'Blood Groups in Man'",
          "JulianDayStart": 2433283,
          "StartDisplay": "1950",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1950",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16055
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nRudolf Signer of Bern, Switzerland, had developed a method of extracting good-quality DNA from calf thymus. At a meeting of the Faraday Society in May, he gave away samples of it to several scientists including <a title=\"The Maurice Wilkins and MRC Biophysics Unit archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/maurice-wilkins-mrc-biophysics-unit-archive/\">Maurice Wilkins</a> of King's College London. Wilkins invited Raymond Gosling, a PhD student at King's, to take X-ray diffraction photographs of the DNA. Gosling and Wilkins discovered that they could get an excellent diffraction image by keeping bundles of fibres moist. The following year Wilkins presented the image at a conference in Naples. <a title=\"The James Watson papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-watson/\">James Watson</a> was in the audience, and Wilkins's talk made him determined to work on the structure of DNA. \n</p>\n<p>\n<a class=\"action\" title=\"Wilkins video on DNA\" href=\"http://www.dnalc.org/view/15337-Use-of-X-ray-crstallography-to-prove-that-DNA-is-crystalline-Maurice-Wilkins.html\" target=\"_blank\">Watch a video of Wilkins talking about his use of X-ray crystallography&nbsp;on DNA<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1950",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28381",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28378",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28378",
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          "ImageCredit": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Maurice Wilkins begins to study DNA",
          "JulianDayStart": 2433283,
          "StartDisplay": "1950",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1950",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16047
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nProteins consist of long chains made up of 20 different amino acids, but their arrangement in the chain was unknown. In the Department of Biochemistry at the University of Cambridge, <a title=\"The Frederick Sanger papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/fred-sanger/\">Fred Sanger</a> developed a method of radioactively labelling the amino acids at the ends of fragments of the protein insulin. He separated the fragments using paper chromatography and recorded the patterns on photographic film. Analysing the amino acid content of each fragment enabled him to reconstruct the full sequences of the molecule's B chain. The A chain followed two years later, and the bonds between the two in 1955. His results showed that each protein had a unique sequence. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1958. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Sanger article on protein sequence\" href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1197535/pdf/biochemj00914-0072.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper </a><br />\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1951",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1951-insulin-model-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1951-insulin-model-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1951-insulin-model-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Fred Sanger sequences the insulin protein chain  ",
          "JulianDayStart": 2433648,
          "StartDisplay": "1951",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1951",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16072
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p><a title=\"The James Watson papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-watson/\">James Watson</a> trained in the genetics of bacteriophage (tiny viruses) at the University of Indiana before being sent to Copenhagen in 1950 to learn nucleic acid chemistry. The following year, he moved to the Medical Research Council Unit at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, where he met and became friends with <a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick</a>. Watson persuaded Crick that DNA, rather than protein, should be the focus of their studies. Crick agreed, although he knew that <a title=\"The Maurice Wilkins and MRC Biophysics Unit archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/maurice-wilkins-mrc-biophysics-unit-archive/\">Maurice Wilkins</a> was working on DNA at King's College London. Watson and Crick produced their first model of the structure of DNA within the year, but this proved to be incorrect. \n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1951",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27660",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27657",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27657",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "James Watson arrives at the MRC Unit in Cambridge and meets Francis Crick",
          "JulianDayStart": 2433648,
          "StartDisplay": "1951",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1951",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16064
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nTo determine whether protein or DNA carries virus infection into cells, Alfred Hershey and his colleague Martha Chase at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York, grew bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) with radioactively labelled sulphur (which will mark only protein) and phosphorus (which will mark only DNA). Using a kitchen blender to separate the cytoplasm of the infected bacteria from their cell walls, Hershey and Chase showed that DNA from the bacteriophage ended up inside the bacterium, while the bacteriophage protein was stuck to the outer membrane. The 'Waring blender experiment' helped to confirm that DNA is the genetic material. \n</p>\n<p>\n<a class=\"action\" title=\"Hershey and Chase article\" href=\"http://jgp.rupress.org/content/36/1/39.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1952",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1952-measles-virus-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1952-measles-virus-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1952-measles-virus-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase show that viral DNA enters host cells",
          "JulianDayStart": 2434013,
          "StartDisplay": "1952",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1952",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16080
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nWorking at the University of Glasgow, <a title=\"The Guido Pontecorvo papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/guido-pontecorvo/\">Guido Pontecorvo</a> discovered that the fungus Aspergillus nidulans can recombine genetic information and generate variability by fusing cells that are not sex cells. He found that this was part of a cycle that he dubbed the parasexual cycle. Years later, his work was applied in studies of human cells in culture. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Pontecorvo's work on parasexual sex\" href=\"http://www.worldchanging.glasgow.ac.uk/article/?id=81\" target=\"_blank\">More about Pontecorvo's work at Glasgow University<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1952",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27909",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27906",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27906",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Guido Pontecorvo discovers gene mixing without sex",
          "JulianDayStart": 2434013,
          "StartDisplay": "1952",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1952",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16113
      },
      {
          "Body": "In his book 'Eugenics: Galton and after', <a title=\"The Carlos Paton Blacker papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/22588/carlos-paton-blacker/\">Carlos Blacker</a> acknowledged the increasingly negative public attitude to eugenics in the aftermath of the 'racial hygiene' policies of the National Socialist government of Germany under Adolf Hitler. Around this time, he resigned from his post of General Secretary at the <a title=\"The Eugenics Society archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/eugenics-society/\">Eugenics Society</a>.<br />",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1952",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27798",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27794",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27794",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Carlos Blacker publishes 'Eugenics: Galton and after'",
          "JulianDayStart": 2434013,
          "StartDisplay": "1952",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1952",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16096
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nWorking at Birmingham University and (from 1951 onwards) UCL, <a title=\"The Peter Medawar papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/peter-medawar/\">Medawar</a> and his colleagues Rupert Billingham and Leslie Brent showed that mice can accept skin grafts from genetically dissimilar strains if they have been injected with cells from those strains before birth. The work confirmed Frank Macfarlane Burnet's hypothesis that immunity develops around the time of birth and shortly afterwards. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Medawar article on immunological tolerance\" href=\"http://jeb.biologists.org/content/suppl/2004/10/14/207.23.4013.DC1/JEB01293.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a> [PDF] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1952",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26626",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/Medawar-notebook-1952-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/Medawar-notebook-1952-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Peter Medawar publishes evidence of acquired immunological tolerance",
          "JulianDayStart": 2434013,
          "StartDisplay": "1952",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1952",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16088
      },
      {
          "Body": "At King's College London, <a title=\"The Rosalind Franklin papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/rosalind-franklin/\">Rosalind Franklin</a> was preparing samples of DNA with different amounts of water in the molecule for X-ray diffraction studies. She called her DNA samples the 'A' and 'B' forms. Photo 51, which revealed evidence that the structure of DNA is a helix, was an X-ray diffraction pattern of the B form. She put it aside to continue working on the A form. The following year, after Franklin had decided to leave King's and had been ordered to give up work on DNA, <a title=\"The Maurice Wilkins and MRC Biophysics Unit archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/maurice-wilkins-mrc-biophysics-unit-archive/\">Maurice Wilkins</a> showed the photo to <a title=\"The James Watson papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-watson/\">James Watson</a>. It was crucially important in Watson and Francis Crick's discovery of the double helix.<br />",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1952",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29416",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29413",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29413",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Rosalind Franklin produces ‘Photo 51’ of DNA",
          "JulianDayStart": 2434013,
          "StartDisplay": "1952",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1952",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16104
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe German paediatrician Horst Bickel, then working at the Children's Hospital in Birmingham, showed that the metabolic disorder phenylketonuria could be treated by strictly controlling the amount of phenylalanine in the diet of affected children. Whereas untreated children had learning difficulties, those on the restricted diet developed normal brain function. The discovery opened the way to national screening programmes for newborn children so that affected children could be placed on the diet from birth. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Bickel vidoe on PKU\" href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rs0iZW0Lb0&list=UUrdcshYZCCPic33ZXhgsgNQ&index=3\" target=\"_blank\">View a silent&nbsp;film made by Bickel at the Children's hospital in Birmingham<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1953",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1934-PKU-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27783",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27783",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Horst Bickel demonstrates dietary treatment of PKU",
          "JulianDayStart": 2434379,
          "StartDisplay": "1953",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1953",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16129
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn the 25 April 1953 issue of 'Nature', <a title=\"The James Watson papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-watson/\">James Watson</a> and <a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick</a> published their model of the structure of DNA - two chains of complementary nucleotide bases wound into a double helix. Working in the Medical Research Council Unit at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, they had deduced this structure from their own model building, and from crystallographic studies by <a title=\"The Maurice Wilkins and MRC Biophysics Unit archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/maurice-wilkins-mrc-biophysics-unit-archive/\">Maurice Wilkins</a> and <a title=\"The Rosalind Franklin papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/rosalind-franklin/\">Rosalind Franklin</a> at King's College London (who also published papers in the same issue). Watson and Crick published a second paper in May that proposed a mechanism for DNA replication. Crick, Watson and Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery in 1962. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Crick and Watson article at Nature for DNA discovery\" href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a>&nbsp;[PDF]<br />\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1953",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1953-double-helix-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1953-double-helix-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1953-double-helix-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "James Watson and Francis Crick publish the double helix structure of DNA",
          "JulianDayStart": 2434379,
          "StartDisplay": "1953",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1953",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16121
      },
      {
          "Body": "<a title=\"The Arthur Mourant papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/arthur-mourant/\">Mourant</a> was head of the Medical Research Council's Blood Group Reference Laboratory, which from 1952 had incorporated the World Health Organization's International Blood Group Reference Laboratory. He created world maps showing variations in the frequency of different blood types in the world's populations. The fact that all humans share the same blood group systems suggested close genetic similarity among races, while the differences in the blood group frequencies were a source of information about recent human evolutionary history.<br />",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1954",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26641",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/Mourant-1954-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/Mourant-1954-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Arthur Mourant publishes 'The Distribution of Human Blood Groups'",
          "JulianDayStart": 2434744,
          "StartDisplay": "1954",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1954",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16138
      },
      {
          "Body": "This was the <a title=\"The Peter Medawar papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/peter-medawar/\">immunologist’s</a> first published collection of essays, and included the title essay on the fascination of transplantation immunology. He described the book as giving ‘a true picture of what young biologists were thinking about before the Enlightenment ushered in by the recognition of DNA as the vector of genetic information’.",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1955",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27924",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27921",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27921",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Peter Medawar publishes 'The Uniqueness of the Individual'",
          "JulianDayStart": 2435109,
          "StartDisplay": "1955",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1955",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16162
      },
      {
          "Body": "<a title=\"The James Renwick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-renwick/\">James Renwick</a> and Sylvia Lawler, then both young researchers at the Galton Laboratory at UCL, published a study of five large pedigrees in which they demonstrated linkage between the ABO blood group system and a birth defect called nail patella syndrome. The study, which used statistical methods to compare the likelihood of linkage with the likelihood that such associations would arise by chance, set new standards in both documentation and analysis.<br />",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1955",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28400",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28397",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28397",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "First study to exploit statistical methods to find linkage in large families",
          "JulianDayStart": 2435109,
          "StartDisplay": "1955",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1955",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16146
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn 1923, Theophilis Painter reported, incorrectly, that human cells have 48 chromosomes. For more than 30 years, scientists accepted this as fact, until Javan-born plant geneticist Joe Hin Tjio, working in Albert Levan's Institute of Genetics at the University of Lund in Sweden, used a drug called colchicine to freeze human cells at a stage in the cell's reproductive cycle called metaphase. He then spread out the chromosomes so that they could be seen individually. This enabled him to see that human cells have 46 chromosomes, a discovery that launched the field of human cytogenetics. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Tijo and Levan article on human chromosomes\" href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1601-5223.1956.tb03010.x/pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a> [PDF] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1956",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1956-chromosomes-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1956-chromosomes-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1956-chromosomes-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Correct human chromosome count revealed",
          "JulianDayStart": 2435474,
          "StartDisplay": "1956",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1956",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16154
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nAt the Medical Research Council Unit at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, Vernon Ingram was analysing normal and sickle cell haemoglobin using Fred Sanger's protein sequencing techniques. He began by breaking the haemoglobin into fragments using an enzyme called trypsin. In 1956, he showed that only one of these protein fragments differed between normal and sickle cell haemoglobin, and in 1957 he showed that this was due to the substitution of just one amino acid: sickle cell haemoglobin has valine instead of glutamate in a particular position. This was the first evidence that a single amino acid substitution in a single protein can cause a serious disease. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Ingram article on sickle cell anaemia\" href=\"http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/167/1/1\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1957",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1957-sickle-cell-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1957-sickle-cell-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1957-sickle-cell-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Vernon Ingram discovers that a single change in haemoglobin causes sickle cell anaemia",
          "JulianDayStart": 2435840,
          "StartDisplay": "1957",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1957",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16178
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn a lecture on protein synthesis for the Society of Experimental Biology in London, <a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick</a> proposed that the DNA sequence is a code for the protein sequence. As he had done two years previously in an unpublished note circulated to the members of the 'RNA Tie Club', he predicted the existence of 'adaptors' that transfer the information (later found to be transfer RNAs). His 'central dogma' asserted that information flows from DNA to protein, but not back again. The lecture was published the following year as 'On Protein Synthesis'. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"On Protein Synthesis reprint\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b1817789\">Read 'On Protein Synthesis'</a><br />\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1957",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1957-crick-centraldogma-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1957-crick-centraldogma-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1957-crick-centraldogma-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Francis Crick proposes the ‘sequence hypothesis’ and the ‘central dogma’",
          "JulianDayStart": 2435840,
          "StartDisplay": "1957",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1957",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16170
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nArthur Kornberg at Washington University in St Louis successfully extracted from E. coli bacteria an enzyme that catalyses the rebuilding of double-stranded DNA from a single DNA strand and a supply of the four nucleotides A, C, G and T. He concluded that the single-stranded DNA acted as a template and that the enzyme, DNA polymerase, extended the complementary strand one nucleotide at a time. His paper on the discovery was initially rejected but was published in 1958, and he won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine the following year. \n</p>\n<p>\n<a class=\"action\" title=\"Kornberg papers at the NIH\" href=\"http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/WH/p-nid/208\" target=\"_blank\">More about the Arthur Kornberg papers at the National Institute of Health<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1958",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Arthur Kornberg discovers the enzyme that builds DNA",
          "JulianDayStart": 2436205,
          "StartDisplay": "1958",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1958",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16186
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nWhile studying protein synthesis in cell-free extracts of rat liver at the Huntington Laboratory at Massachusetts General Hospital, Mahlon Hoagland and Paul Zamecnik noticed that small RNA molecules briefly associated with radiolabelled amino acids. They correctly inferred that they had discovered the 'adaptor' predicted by <a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick</a> that mediated between the messenger RNA template and the protein chain. It was subsequently called transfer RNA, or tRNA. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Hoagland and Zamecnik article on tRNA\" href=\"http://www.jbc.org/content/231/1/241.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1958",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Mahlon Hoagland and Paul Zamecnik discover transfer RNA",
          "JulianDayStart": 2436205,
          "StartDisplay": "1958",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1958",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16203
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn 1953, Max Perutz at the Medical Research Council Unit in Cambridge had developed the 'heavy atom' method to obtain interpretable X-ray diffraction images of the haemoglobin molecule. His colleague John Kendrew used this method, together with some of the first crystallographic computer programs, to solve the structure of the myoglobin protein at low resolution. They were surprised to find that the molecule was complex and irregular. In 1959 Perutz published a similar low-resolution structure for haemoglobin, showing that each of its four subunits bore a close resemblance to myoglobin, even though Kendrew's molecule had come from whale meat and Perutz's from horse blood. The discoveries provided evidence that Darwin's theory of evolution holds true at the level of individual molecules. Perutz and Kendrew were awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. \n</p>\n<p>\n<em>Image courtesy of the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology </em>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1958",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1958_john_kendrew-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1958_john_kendrew-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1958_john_kendrew-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "John Kendrew solves the first protein structure",
          "JulianDayStart": 2436205,
          "StartDisplay": "1958",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1958",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16194
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn 1956, Joe-Hin Tijo and Albert Levan discovered that humans normally have 46 chromosomes. Three years later, in a study of cells taken from the skin of nine children with Down's syndrome, Jerome Lejeune and Marthe Gautier - working in the laboratory of the geneticist and paediatrician Raymond Turpin in Paris - showed that children with Down's syndrome have 47 chromosomes. Later work showed that Down's syndrome is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. The same year, others identified chromosomal abnormalities in Turner syndrome (females who lack all or part of an X chromosome) and Klinefelter syndrome (males who have at least one extra X chromosome). \n</p>\n<p>\n<a class=\"action\" title=\"chromosome 21 article in Nature\" href=\"http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/Trisomy-21-Causes-Down-Syndrome-318\" target=\"_blank\">More about chromosome 21<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1959",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26669",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1959-chromosome21-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1959-chromosome21-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "French scientists discover an extra chromosome in Down’s syndrome",
          "JulianDayStart": 2436570,
          "StartDisplay": "1959",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1959",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16211
      },
      {
          "Body": "<a title=\"The Malcolm Ferguson-Smith papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/malcolm-ferguson-smith/\">Malcolm Ferguson-Smith</a>, a young doctor and researcher in clinical genetics, moved from the University of Glasgow to the Department of Medical Genetics at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, newly established by Victor McKusick. He worked on chromosomal abnormalities and set up the first diagnostic service in the USA specifically to look for them.<br />",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1959",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28420",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28417",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28417",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "First diagnostic genetics service in the USA",
          "JulianDayStart": 2436570,
          "StartDisplay": "1959",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1959",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16219
      },
      {
          "Body": "The first computer program that could correctly calculate the likelihood of genetic linkage in large family pedigrees was published by <a title=\"The James Renwick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-renwick/\">James Renwick</a> of the University of Glasgow and Jane Schulze of Johns Hopkins University.<br />",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1961",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26679",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1960-computer-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1960-computer-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "First computer program to calculate genetic linkage",
          "JulianDayStart": 2437301,
          "StartDisplay": "1961",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1961",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16235
      },
      {
          "Body": "Since the discovery of the DNA double helix, a group of researchers in the UK, the USA and France (dubbed the 'RNA Tie Club' by the physicist George Gamow) had been tackling the problem of how the DNA code in the nucleus gives rise to new proteins in the cytoplasm. <a title=\"The Sydney Brenner papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/sydney-brenner/\">Sydney Brenner</a> and <a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick</a> in Cambridge had speculated that RNA, made on the DNA template, carries its message into the cytoplasm where it provides the template for protein production on structures called ribosomes. Working with phage-infected E. coli, Brenner and François Jacob successfully confirmed the idea in Matthew Meselson's laboratory in California.<br />",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1961",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "RNA is the messenger",
          "JulianDayStart": 2437301,
          "StartDisplay": "1961",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1961",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16251
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nHow can the four nucleic acid letters - A, T, C and G - be translated into the 20 amino acids that make up proteins? To answer this question, <a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick</a>, <a title=\"The Sydney Brenner papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/sydney-brenner/\">Sydney Brenner</a> and their assistant Leslie Barnett induced mutations in the DNA of bacteriophage T4, a virus that infects bacteria. The mutations inserted or deleted individual bases in the DNA, knocking out the function of a crucial phage gene. Two or four mutations rendered the gene inactive, but with three mutations it started to work again. They concluded that the genetic code is a triplet code: three bases code for one amino acid. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Coding - draft of Natue paper\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18181600#0/0/-0.2663,0.2776,1.5325,0.9451\" target=\"_blank\">See&nbsp;notes from the archive for a paper in&nbsp;'Nature' on the triplet code<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1961",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26675",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1961-crick-brenner-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1961-crick-brenner-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Francis Crick and Sydney Brenner discover that the genetic code is a triplet code",
          "JulianDayStart": 2437301,
          "StartDisplay": "1961",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1961",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16227
      },
      {
          "Body": "Jacques Monod, François Jacob and Arthur Pardee at the Pasteur Institute in Paris were working on the problem of gene regulation: how it is that every cell has the same DNA, but different types of cell produce different proteins. Experimenting with E. coli bacteria that produce the enzyme ϐ-galactosidase under different conditions, they concluded that the production of the enzyme was under a system of control that included both 'operator' and 'repressor' genes, which could be inactivated by environmental or genetic influences.<br />",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1961",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Regulation of gene expression",
          "JulianDayStart": 2437301,
          "StartDisplay": "1961",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1961",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16243
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nMary Lyon at the Medical Research Council's Radiobiology Research Unit in Oxfordshire noticed that the female offspring of a normal dark mouse and a white mouse with an X chromosome mutation had speckled fur. She suggested that in early development, one of each pair of X chromosomes in the cells of a female, and all descendants of that cell, are inactivated. The inactivated X chromosomes turned out to correspond to the dense 'Barr bodies' identified in the cells of female mammals by Barr and Bertram in 1949. The process came to be known as X chromosome inactivation, or 'lyonisation', and proved to be significant in understanding human inherited disorders. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Genetics and medical historical network interviw with Mary Lyon\" href=\"http://www.genmedhist.info/interviews/Lyon\" target=\"_blank\">Transcript of an interview with Mary Lyon</a>\n</p>\n<p><em>Image credit: Dr Lizzie Burns</em>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1961",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/31292",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1961-lyon",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1961-lyon",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Mary Lyon discovers X chromosome inactivation",
          "JulianDayStart": 2437301,
          "StartDisplay": "1961",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1961",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16260
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nWhile working at the <a title=\"The Medical Research Council Blood Group Unit archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/mrc-blood-group-unit/\">MRC Blood Group Research Unit</a> in London, <a title=\"The Robert Race and Ruth Sanger papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/robert-race-ruth-sanger/\">Race and Sanger</a> analysed samples of blood and serum from all over the world. They discovered a new antigen, Xg, which in 1963 they located on the short arm of the X chromosome. The discovery was significant because the antigen assisted with linkage studies for genetic disorders associated with the X chromosome. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Butterworth hospital newsletter\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b17408180#0/2/-0.7163,0,2.4327,1.5002\" target=\"_blank\">Report of a lecture given by Race and Sanger at Butterworth Hospital on their discovery<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1962",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26691",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1962-race-sanger-blood-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1962-race-sanger-blood-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Robert Race and Ruth Sanger discover an X-linked blood group antigen",
          "JulianDayStart": 2437666,
          "StartDisplay": "1962",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1962",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16268
      },
      {
          "Body": "Recognising that eugenic ideals had fallen into disfavour, the Eugenics Society applied for charitable status as an educational foundation and has since ceased to campaign for eugenic policies. It is now known as the Galton Institute.<br />",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1963",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27649",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27646",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27646",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Eugenics Society ceases propaganda activities",
          "JulianDayStart": 2438031,
          "StartDisplay": "1963",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1963",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16286
      },
      {
          "Body": "<a title=\"The Lionel Penrose papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/lionel-penrose/\">Lionel Penrose</a> had been Galton Professor of Eugenics since 1945 but disliked the term, which did not reflect his own interest in medical genetics. From 1954 he changed the name of the Galton Laboratory's journal from 'Annals of Eugenics' to 'Annals of Human Genetics', but it was not until 1963 that he was able to persuade the authorities at UCL to change the name of the chair to the Galton Professorship in Human Genetics.<br />",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1963",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Lionel Penrose renames his chair in eugenics as the Galton Professorship in Human Genetics",
          "JulianDayStart": 2438031,
          "StartDisplay": "1963",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1963",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16277
      },
      {
          "Body": "<a title=\"The James Watson papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-watson/\">James Watson's</a> textbook 'The Molecular Biology of the Gene' became required reading for biology students and subsequently went through five further editions.<br />",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1965",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1965-watson-draft-ch1-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1965-watson-draft-ch1-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1965-watson-draft-ch1-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "James Watson publishes 'The Molecular Biology of the Gene'",
          "JulianDayStart": 2438762,
          "StartDisplay": "1965",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1965",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16294
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nHow did the specific sequence of bases in DNA, and in the RNA copied from this DNA, code for the amino acids that make up proteins? In 1961, Marshall Nirenberg and Heinrich Matthaei at the US National Institutes of Health uncovered the first part of this code. They created a synthetic form of RNA made only of uracil (one of the four RNA nucleotides), which drove the production of a protein made only of the amino acid phenylalanine - they had discovered that UUU 'spells' phenylalanine. Other researchers, notably Har Gobind Khorana in Wisconsin, took up the challenge to determine the rest of the code. By 1966 it was complete, and Francis Crick was able to draw up a table that showed how each combination of RNA letters spells out an amino acid or a 'nonsense codon' marking the end of a sequence. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Gordon research conference -the wobble hypothesis\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18185988#0/26/-0.7163,0,2.4327,1.5002\" target=\"_blank\">Read a draft paper by Crick on \"the wobble hypothesis\" and codons</a>&nbsp; \n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1966",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29050",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29043",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29043",
          "LinkText": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "The genetic code is cracked",
          "JulianDayStart": 2439127,
          "StartDisplay": "1966",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1966",
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          "EndDisplay": null,
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          "EventId": 16302
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p><a title=\"The James Watson papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-watson/\">James Watson's</a> personal account of the 1953 discovery of the DNA structure was a radical departure from conventional scientific autobiography. He supplemented his memory of Cambridge in the early 1950s with the letters he wrote to his parents at the time. Both <a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick</a> and <a title=\"The Maurice Wilkins and MRC Biophysics Unit archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/maurice-wilkins-mrc-biophysics-unit-archive/\">Maurice Wilkins</a> saw the draft and were opposed to publication, partly because of the book's unfair depiction of <a title=\"The Rosalind Franklin papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/rosalind-franklin/\">Rosalind Franklin</a>, who had died in 1958. Harvard University Press withdrew its offer to publish, but Athenaeum took it on instead. It appeared with an apologetic epilogue reappraising Franklin's contribution. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Correspondence about Watson's double helix\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b1818893x#0/0/-0.4654,0.1547,1.9308,1.1907\" target=\"_blank\">Correspondence about the publication from the Crick archive</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1968",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28180",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "James Watson publishes The Double Helix",
          "JulianDayStart": 2439857,
          "StartDisplay": "1968",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1968",
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          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16311
      },
      {
          "Body": "At Johns Hopkins University, Smith isolated an enzyme, endonuclease R, from the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae. He showed that it cut double-stranded DNA from a virus called phage P22 at specific sites and into roughly equal-sized pieces. Such restriction enzymes would act as the molecular 'scissors' necessary to break and recombine DNA molecules, and help to launch the recombinant DNA revolution.",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1970",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Hamilton Smith discovers the first restriction enzymes",
          "JulianDayStart": 2440588,
          "StartDisplay": "1970",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1970",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
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          "EventId": 16319
      },
      {
          "Body": "<a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick's</a> 'central dogma of biology' stated that information could flow only from DNA to RNA to protein. But some viruses, such as Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), have genetic material that is RNA and not DNA. Howard Temin at the University of Wisconsin-Madison proposed that the RNA of infecting RSV acted as a template for the synthesis of viral DNA in the host cell - in other words, reverse transcription - and discovered the enzyme responsible. David Baltimore at MIT simultaneously made the same discovery. The enzyme, reverse transcriptase, became an extremely valuable tool in molecular biology as it can make complementary DNA copies of messenger RNA.",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1970",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1970-transcriptase-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1970-transcriptase-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1970-transcriptase-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discover reverse transcriptase",
          "JulianDayStart": 2440588,
          "StartDisplay": "1970",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1970",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16327
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nPeter Duesberg and Peter Vogt in the USA discovered that a sequence of nucleotides within the RNA of the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), which causes cancer in chickens, was responsible for its carcinogenic activity. This was subsequently isolated and recognised as a gene, src, the first oncogene (cancer-causing gene). Others would discover later that this gene exists in healthy animals of other species, including humans. Oncogenes turned out to be part of our normal genetic make-up, and much cancer research today is directed towards finding the molecular triggers that activate them. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Temin and Baltimore article on reverse transcriptase\" href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC283411/?tool=pubmed\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1970",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1970-oncogene-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1970-oncogene-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1970-oncogene-250",
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          ],
          "Title": "Peter Duesberg and Peter Vogt discover the first oncogene",
          "JulianDayStart": 2440588,
          "StartDisplay": "1970",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1970",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16335
      },
      {
          "Body": "California-based Cetus - founded by Ronald Cape, Peter Farley and the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Donald Glaser - began by offering a a fast screening service to pharmaceutical and other companies looking for microbes that could increase the production of antibiotics or other products. It went on to develop the use of recombinant technology to produce medically useful agents. Many competitors soon sprang up, including Genentech and Chiron. ",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1971",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
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          ],
          "Title": "First biotechnology company, Cetus, is formed",
          "JulianDayStart": 2440953,
          "StartDisplay": "1971",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1971",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16351
      },
      {
          "Body": "More than five years after the genetic code had been cracked, there was no easy way to read DNA. At Cornell University, Ray Wu and Ellen Taylor succeeded in reading the sequence of unpaired nucleotides at either end of the DNA molecule from the virus bacteriophage lambda. Using enzymes to cut and repair this sequence, followed by sequencing of the separate pieces, the researchers could read off the 12 nucleotides at one end as GGGCGGCGACCT. The sequence at the other end was exactly complementary, as expected as the two 'sticky ends' of the DNA molecule can pair with one another to form a circular chromosome when the phage infects a bacterial cell.",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1971",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28459",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28456",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28456",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "First DNA sequence produced",
          "JulianDayStart": 2440953,
          "StartDisplay": "1971",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1971",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16344
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nInspired by work he did as a young researcher with <a title=\"The Guido Pontecorvo papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/guido-pontecorvo/\">Guido Pontecorvo</a> at Glasgow, Frank H Ruddle at Yale was using the somatic cell hybridisation method to find genes. He convened the first workshop at Yale for researchers interested in locating genes on human chromosomes. One hundred genes were located at this workshop, and subsequent regular workshops would assign around 2000 genes to chromosomal locations before the launch of the Human Genome Project in 1989. The mapping data were stored in a publicly available database, setting a precedent for the sharing of human genome information. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Ruddle article about genetic engineering of a mouse\" href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3117405/\" target=\"_blank\">More about Frank Ruddle and genetic engineering of a mouse</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1973",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
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          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "First human gene mapping workshop",
          "JulianDayStart": 2441684,
          "StartDisplay": "1973",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1973",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16365
      },
      {
          "Body": "Working at the MRC Mammalian Genetics Unit in Edinburgh, Edwin Southern became frustrated with his attempts to find a gene by analysing pieces of DNA on a gel. He developed a new method: he soaked his gels and used paper towels to draw the DNA out, fixing it to a fine membrane filter. He then used a radioactively labelled piece of complementary DNA or RNA to probe for the matching gene and located it using photographic film. The method, nicknamed Southern blotting, would prove crucial to the success of later discoveries such as DNA fingerprinting.",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1975",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1975-southern-blot-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1975-southern-blot-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1975-southern-blot-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Ed Southern finds a quick way of finding individual genes",
          "JulianDayStart": 2442414,
          "StartDisplay": "1975",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1975",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16373
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nAt the Asilomar Conference on California's Monterey Peninsula, about 140 biologists, doctors and lawyers debated the legal, ethical and biosafety aspects of continuing with research on recombinant DNA. A year previously, a committee of the US National Academy of Sciences had called for all such research to be halted until such a conference had taken place. The Asilomar Conference, organised by the Stanford University geneticist Paul Berg, established guidelines that allowed research to continue under conditions that ensured the acceptable containment of genetically modified organisms. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Asilomar conference guidelines\" href=\"http://authors.library.caltech.edu/11971/1/BERpnas75.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Read a report of the conference and the guidelines</a> [PDF] \n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1975",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Geneticists agree guidelines on recombinant research",
          "JulianDayStart": 2442414,
          "StartDisplay": "1975",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1975",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16382
      },
      {
          "Body": "Working independently, Richard Roberts at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and Philip Sharp at MIT discovered that sequences of DNA that encode proteins can be interrupted by non-coding sequences. They concluded that the process of transcription into messenger RNA includes a step in which the unwanted loops or 'introns' are edited out and the coding sequence or 'exons' spliced together. One consequence is that the same gene, spliced in different ways, may give rise to different products. During evolution, individual exons may have been shuffled between genes, providing an alternative and more rapid source of variation than random, single-nucleotide mutations.",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1977",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
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          "LinkText": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Richard Roberts and Philip Sharp discover split genes",
          "JulianDayStart": 2443145,
          "StartDisplay": "1977",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1977",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16402
      },
      {
          "Body": "<a title=\"The Frederick Sanger papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/fred-sanger/\">Fred Sanger</a> and his colleague Alan Coulson at the Medical Research Council's Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge developed what they called the 'plus and minus' method to sequence the DNA of the bacteriophage ϕX174, a tiny virus. The sequence was almost complete when he and his colleagues developed an even quicker and simpler method, known as the dideoxy chain termination method. Using this method they quickly finished the ϕX174 genome, which consisted of 5386 base pairs. The dideoxy method was the basis of the automated, high-speed sequencing technology that would complete the human genome by 2003.",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1977",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28469",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28466",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28466",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Fred Sanger sequences first DNA genome",
          "JulianDayStart": 2443145,
          "StartDisplay": "1977",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1977",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16389
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nDavid Goeddel and colleagues at the California biotech company Genentech and the nearby City of Hope Medical Centre succeeded in producing human insulin from E. coli bacteria transformed with the human insulin gene. The technology was licensed to the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly, which obtained federal approval to market the recombinant insulin in 1982. Genentech went on to market recombinant interferon and human growth hormone. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Goeddel article on insulin\" href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC382885/?pageindex=1\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1978",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1978-insulin-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1978-insulin-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1978-insulin-250",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Recombinant human insulin produced",
          "JulianDayStart": 2443510,
          "StartDisplay": "1978",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1978",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16410
      },
      {
          "Body": "Using restriction enzymes, it is possible to make 'restriction maps' that represent genes or genomes as a series of DNA fragments of characteristic sizes. Genetic variation shows up as differences in the sizes of the fragments, known as restriction fragment length polymorphisms, or RFLPs. In 1980, David Botstein at MIT and his colleagues proposed that if RFLPs could be identified at regular intervals throughout the whole human genome, they would act as markers in linkage studies of human disease genes. The strategy was very successful, and the first disease gene - for Huntington's disease - was mapped using RFLPs as markers just three years later.<br />",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1980",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Landmarks on the map of disease genes",
          "JulianDayStart": 2444240,
          "StartDisplay": "1980",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1980",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16419
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p><a title=\"The Frederick Sanger papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/fred-sanger/\">Fred Sanger</a> was the first person to sequence a human genome, while working at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge. It was not the 'nuclear' human genome (the chromosomes found in the nucleus of human cells, which were not sequenced until the 2000s) but the much smaller genome found in mitochondria, the structures that provide energy to the cells. Sanger used the 'shotgun' method to break up the mitochondrial DNA into randomly sized fragments and then sequenced its 16 569 base pairs. His manual sequence was later shown to be 99.93 per cent correct, a remarkable result. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"mitochondiral DNA at genome.wellcome.ac.uk\" href=\"http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD020876.html\" target=\"_blank\">More about mitochondrial DNA<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1981",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28482",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28479",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Human mitochondrial DNA sequenced",
          "JulianDayStart": 2444606,
          "StartDisplay": "1981",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1981",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16428
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nWhile searching for repeated sequences or 'minisatellites' in the non-coding regions of human DNA, Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester ran radioactively labelled samples from several individuals through a gel. He found that the exact sequence pattern in the minisatellites was unique to each individual - each person had, in effect, a DNA fingerprint, which looks something like a bar code. Almost immediately the technology was applied in forensic investigations, paternity testing and immigration disputes. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"DNA fingerprinting\" href=\"http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD020877.html\" target=\"_blank\">More about DNA fingerprinting<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1984",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26742",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1984-genetic-fingerprinting-250",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Alec Jeffreys discovers DNA fingerprinting",
          "JulianDayStart": 2445701,
          "StartDisplay": "1984",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1984",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16436
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nKary Mullis at the Cetus Corporation, a Californian biotechnology company, discovered that if he separated the two strands of a piece of DNA, attached primers (short lengths of DNA) to each strand and then added the enzyme DNA polymerase, the two strands would each be reconstituted as a double helix.&nbsp; By repeating the process - termed the polymerase chain reaction, or PCR - an initially tiny DNA sample could be amplified to an amount that could be tested or used in experiments. The crucial breakthrough was to use a DNA polymerase from a heat-tolerant bacterium, Thermus aquaticus (known as Taq), because the DNA sample has to be heated to separate the strands. PCR became an essential tool in biomedical and forensic science. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"PCR at genome.wellcome.ac.uk\" href=\"http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_wtd021042.html\" target=\"_blank\">More about polymerase chain reaction (PCR)<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1985",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27981",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27978",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/27978",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify DNA",
          "JulianDayStart": 2446067,
          "StartDisplay": "1985",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1985",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16444
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nSubtitled 'A personal view of scientific discovery', <a title=\"The Francis Crick papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/francis-crick/\">Francis Crick's</a> intellectual autobiography was a much cooler account of the story of the discovery of the structure of DNA, and of his subsequent career, than <a title=\"The James Watson papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-watson/\">James Watson</a> had offered in 'The Double Helix'. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Sloan correspondance on autobiography\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b18172854#0/2/-0.4654,0.1547,1.9308,1.1907\" target=\"_blank\">Read correspondence from the archive about the book proposal</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1988",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28361",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28357",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28357",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Francis Crick publishes 'What Mad Pursuit'",
          "JulianDayStart": 2447162,
          "StartDisplay": "1988",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1988",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16453
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nAfter a meeting at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, an international group of scientists met and founded an organisation to coordinate genome research. They invited Victor McKusick to chair it and called it the Human Genome Organisation, or HUGO. Initial funding came from a range of non-governmental sources, including the Howard Hughes Foundation, the Wellcome Trust and the Imperial Cancer Research Fund. Its Single Chromosome Workshops and other meetings take over from the Human Genome Mapping workshops started in 1973. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Human Genome Organisation\" href=\"http://www.hugo-international.org/abt_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">The Human Genome Organisation<br /></a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1988",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "The Human Genome Organisation (HUGO)",
          "JulianDayStart": 2447162,
          "StartDisplay": "1988",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1988",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16462
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p><a title=\"The Eugenics Society archive\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/eugenics-society/\">The Eugenics Society</a> moves out of Eccleston Square in London, its home for more than 50 years, and changes its name to the Galton Institute in honour of its founder. The Institute promotes understanding of the biological and social aspects of human genetics. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Lancet article about the Galton Institute\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b16242713#0/219\">Read&nbsp;a short article about the Galton Institute in 'The Lancet'</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1989",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
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          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Eugenics Society is renamed the Galton Institute",
          "JulianDayStart": 2447528,
          "StartDisplay": "1989",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1989",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16496
      },
      {
          "Body": "In the 1980s, research groups in several countries were hunting for the gene involved in cystic fibrosis. The race was won by Lap-Chee Tsui at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto and Francis Collins at the University of Michigan, who used genetic markers to home in on a region of chromosome 7. They discovered that most cystic fibrosis patients were missing a set of three nucleotides on both of their chromosomes. The mutation was in a gene that codes for a protein called cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator, or CFTR, which regulates the flow of chloride ions across membranes in the lungs and other tissues. The discovery opened the way to further study of the protein and its function but did not instantly lead to new therapies.<br />",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1989",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29039",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29036",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29036",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Cystic fibrosis gene isolated",
          "JulianDayStart": 2447528,
          "StartDisplay": "1989",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1989",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16482
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nAfter some years of discussion, the US Department of Energy and National Institutes of Health (NIH) signed a memorandum of understanding to collaborate on the sequencing of the human genome in 1988. The following year <a title=\"The James Watson papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-watson/\">James Watson</a> was appointed the first Director of the NIH's National Center for Human Genome Research (later the National Human Genome Research Institute). Watson was instrumental in persuading the Wellcome Trust to fund a sequencing programme in the UK under John Sulston, then at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology. Watson resigned in 1992 after a difference of opinion with the NIH Director, Bernardine Healy, over the patenting of gene sequences. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"The Human Genome Project is finally underway\" href=\"http://wellcomelibrary.org/player/b19844943#0/0\">Talk: \"The Human Genome Project is finally underway\"</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1989",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28924",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28921",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28921",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "James Watson is appointed Director of the Office of Genome Research",
          "JulianDayStart": 2447528,
          "StartDisplay": "1989",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1989",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16472
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe first approved gene therapy trial in humans was carried out by Dr W French Anderson and colleagues at the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute in the USA. They treated Ashanti DeSilva, a four-year-old girl with severe combined immunodeficiency disease, by engineering some of her own white blood cells to contain a healthy copy of the malfunctioning gene. They then injected the cells back into the girl. She showed some improvement, although she continued to need regular injections of the enzyme adenosine deaminase.\n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp;\n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1990",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
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          "LinkText": "",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "First approved gene therapy treatment",
          "JulianDayStart": 2447893,
          "StartDisplay": "1990",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1990",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16512
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe US Department of Energy and National Institutes of Health presented a five-year plan to the US Congress, formally inaugurating the first phase of what was planned as a 15-year project to sequence the human genome and the genomes of model organisms including yeast, roundworm and fruit fly. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Human Genome Project research goals\" href=\"http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/hg5yp/goal.shtml\r\n\">Learn more about the&nbsp;research goals of the US Human Genome Project</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1990",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/26771",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1990-hgp-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1990-hgp-250",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Launch of the Human Genome Project",
          "JulianDayStart": 2447893,
          "StartDisplay": "1990",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1990",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16504
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nNancy Wexler of the Hereditary Disease Foundation in California had been collecting samples from a large family living near Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela since 1979. The high frequency of Huntington's disease in this family enabled her and her collaborators to identify a marker that was inherited with the disease in 1983 and to locate the gene on chromosome 4 a decade later. The error was not a deletion or substitution of one or more nucleotides, but an expanded sequence of repeats of the three nucleotides CAG. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Venezuela Huntington's disease project\" href=\"http://www.hdfoundation.org/html/venezuela_huntington.php\" target=\"_blank\">More on the Venezuela Huntington's Disease Project</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1993",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28504",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28501",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28501",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Huntington’s disease gene discovered",
          "JulianDayStart": 2448989,
          "StartDisplay": "1993",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1993",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16528
      },
      {
          "Body": "Victor Ambros, working at Dartmouth College in the USA, discovered that the lin-4 gene of the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans produces 22-nucleotide molecules of single-stranded RNA. This was a surprise because lin-4 regulates the worm's development, and it was expected to do so by producing a protein. Such RNA molecules, known as 'microRNAs', have subsequently been shown to play an important part in controlling the expression of genes in all eukaryotic species, including humans.",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "1993",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28522",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28519",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28519",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Discovery of micro RNAs",
          "JulianDayStart": 2448989,
          "StartDisplay": "1993",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1993",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16538
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p><a title=\"Sir John Sulston and the Human Genome Project\" href=\"http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTVM051500.html\">John Sulston</a>, who was working on the genome of the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, applied to the Wellcome Trust in 1992 to establish a sequencing facility that would complete the work on the worm and begin the task of sequencing the human genome. The Trust agreed to establish a major genome sequencing centre at Hinxton, near Cambridge, and the Sanger Centre - named after <a title=\"The Frederick Sanger papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/fred-sanger/\">Fred Sanger</a>, the double Nobel Prize-winning biochemist whose DNA-sequencing technique would underpin the Centre's work - officially opened in 1993 in temporary laboratories with Sulston as its first Director. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Wellcome Trust Sanger Insititute\" href=\"http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/\" target=\"_blank\">The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1993",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1993-sanger-100.jpg",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1993-sanger-250",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/1993-sanger-250",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Wellcome Trust Sanger Centre opens near Cambridge",
          "JulianDayStart": 2448989,
          "StartDisplay": "1993",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1993",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16520
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThree to five per cent of breast cancer cases are known to involve an inherited predisposition to the disease. By the early 1990s, teams in the USA and the UK had narrowed down the search for a gene that caused such predisposition - 'breast cancer 1' or BRCA1 - to a region on chromosome 17. The first person to locate the gene, in 1994, was Mark Skolnick of Myriad Genetics in the USA. The following year a second gene, BRCA2, was located on chromosome 13 by Mike Stratton and colleagues at the Institute of Cancer Research in London. Women with mutations in these genes carry a very high risk of breast and ovarian cancer. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"BRCA genes in CancerResearch blog\" href=\"http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2012/02/28/high-impact-science-tracking-down-the-brca-genes-part-1/\" target=\"_blank\">More on the BRCA genes</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1994",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28554",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28551",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28551",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "BRCA1 gene for breast cancer discovered",
          "JulianDayStart": 2449354,
          "StartDisplay": "1994",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1994",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16546
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nAt a strategy meeting of lab heads involved in the Human Genome Project, held in Bermuda, participants agreed that assembled genome sequence data should be made public. They also agreed that it should be placed in public databases within a short time of being produced - ideally, on the same day. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"First International Strategy Meeting Human Genome Sequencing\" href=\"http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/research/bermuda.shtml#1\" target=\"_blank\">Summary of principles agreed at the First International Strategy Meeting on Human Genome Sequencing</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1996",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "‘Bermuda agreement’ on free release of genomic data",
          "JulianDayStart": 2450084,
          "StartDisplay": "1996",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1996",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16555
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nIan Wilmut, Keith Campbell and colleagues at the Roslin Institute near Edinburgh (working with the commercial company PPL Therapeutics) were the first to clone a mammal from a somatic cell. They removed the nucleus from an egg cell of one sheep and replaced it with a nucleus taken from an udder cell of another sheep. The egg was then implanted in the uterus of a third sheep. A single lamb, named Dolly (after Dolly Parton), was born on 5 July. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Dolly the sheep at Roslin, Edinburgh University\" href=\"http://www.roslin.ed.ac.uk/public-interest/dolly-the-sheep/\" target=\"_blank\">More about Dolly the sheep</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 5,
          "Year": "1996",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28576",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28573",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28573",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Birth of Dolly, the cloned sheep",
          "JulianDayStart": 2450084,
          "StartDisplay": "1996",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1996",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16567
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe first complete genome of a eukaryotic organism (one whose cells have nuclei) was sequenced by an international collaboration funded as part of the Human Genome Project. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or baker's yeast, has more than 12 million base pairs split over 16 chromosomes, and 5500-6000 genes. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Yeast genome press release from www.genome.gov\" href=\"http://www.genome.gov/10000510\" target=\"_blank\">More about the yeast genome</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "1996",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28583",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28580",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28580",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Completion of the yeast genome",
          "JulianDayStart": 2450084,
          "StartDisplay": "1996",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1996",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16575
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nAt the annual Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory symposium in May, Craig Venter of The Institute of Genomic Research in Rockville, Maryland, announced that he had obtained funding to set up a commercial company (later called <a title=\"Celera launch on genome.wellcome.ac.uk\" href=\"http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD022306.html\" target=\"_blank\">Celera Genomics</a>). His aim was to use the 'whole-genome shotgun' method, which leaves out the preliminary chromosome mapping, to produce a 'definitive' human genome sequence and to license it commercially. The Wellcome Trust doubled its funding for human genome sequencing at the Sanger Centre, enabling it to sequence one-third of the genome, and the publicly funded Human Genome Project set a new target to have a 'working draft' of the genome complete by 2001. \n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1998",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
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          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Launch of Celera Genomics",
          "JulianDayStart": 2450815,
          "StartDisplay": "1998",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1998",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 16589
      },
      {
          "Body": "Jesse Gelsinger, aged 18 and suffering from a single-gene metabolic disorder that prevented his body from breaking down ammonia, died four days after being injected with a viral vector carrying a healthy copy of the gene. He was found to have suffered a massive immune reaction to the vector. A subsequent investigation by the US Food and Drug Administration censured the University of Pennsylvania for breaching several procedural and ethical rules in its conduct of the trial. The development of gene therapy as a technique for treating disease was put back by several years.",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "1999",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Death of gene therapy patient Jesse Gelsinger",
          "JulianDayStart": 2451180,
          "StartDisplay": "1999",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1999",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27679
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nAn international consortium released the genome sequence of the first human chromosome, chromosome 22, in December. Complete to the limits of what was possible at the time, it covered 97 per cent of the long arm of the chromosome (which included the genes) and consisted of more than 33 million base pairs of DNA sequence. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Chromosome 22 on www.sanger.ac.uk\" href=\"http://www.sanger.ac.uk/about/history/hgp/chr22.html\" target=\"_blank\">More about sequencing chromosome 22</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1999",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28611",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28605",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28605",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
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          ],
          "Title": "First human chromosome sequenced",
          "JulianDayStart": 2451180,
          "StartDisplay": "1999",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1999",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27675
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nA team led by Gerald Rubin at the University of California, Berkeley, published the complete genome sequence of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster in March. They were assisted by Celera Genomics, who offered to use their whole genome shotgun approach without charge and to release the data freely. The fly had been the subject of experiments in genetics for almost a century: its nervous system, body plan, development and behaviour were all well studied, and the genome sequence began to make it possible to understand these observations at a molecular level.\n</p>\n<p>\n&nbsp;\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "1999",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28642",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28639",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28639",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Fruit fly genome sequence complete",
          "JulianDayStart": 2451180,
          "StartDisplay": "1999",
          "StartDisplayYear": "1999",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27682
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nOn 26 June, simultaneous press conferences hosted by President Bill Clinton in the USA and Prime Minister Tony Blair in the UK announced that the 'race' to sequence the human genome between the publicly funded Human Genome Project and the private company Celera Genomics had ended in a tie. In fact, the Human Genome Project sequence was still in draft form, a little under 90 per cent complete, and the Celera version was based on thin coverage. The event was staged for political reasons, to end public squabbling between the two sides in a US presidential election year. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Human genome project first draft\" href=\"http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD022314.html\" target=\"_blank\">More about the first draft</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "2000",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29089",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29086",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/29086",
          "LinkText": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "First draft of human genome complete",
          "JulianDayStart": 2451545,
          "StartDisplay": "2000",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2000",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27685
      },
      {
          "Body": "The Cambridge Resource Centre for Comparative Genomics, which supplies chromosome-specific DNA from more than 120 species of birds, fish and amphibians to researchers worldwide, was set up by <a title=\"The Malcolm Ferguson-Smith papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/malcolm-ferguson-smith/\">Malcolm Ferguson-Smith</a>. This has made possible several comparative studies that began to establish evolutionary relationships at the genetic level and to explore the functions of the genes.",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "2002",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28420",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28417",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28417",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Cambridge Resource Centre for Comparative Genomics opens",
          "JulianDayStart": 2452276,
          "StartDisplay": "2002",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2002",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27695
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nAn international project to map variation in 200-400 individuals from Nigeria, the USA, China and Japan was launched in October. The goal of the HapMap project was to extend the understanding of variation between individuals. It used the fact that single-letter variants in the DNA code, called single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs, tend to group together in blocks known as haplotypes. Consequently, just a few SNP tags were needed to identify a haplotype. The HapMap documented variation in haplotype patterns among the different populations studied, a first step towards identifying genetic variation that was associated with disease. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"International HapMap project\" href=\"http://hapmap.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/thehapmap.html.en\" target=\"_blank\">More about the International HapMap project</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "2002",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/30645",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/30642",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/30642",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "International HapMap project launched",
          "JulianDayStart": 2452276,
          "StartDisplay": "2002",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2002",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27691
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn March, the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium published the reference sequence of the 3 billion base pairs of the human genome, covering 99 per cent of the gene-containing regions of the genome to an accuracy of 99.9 per cent. The date was carefully timed to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the discovery of the DNA double helix in 1953; both were initiatives in which <a title=\"The James Watson papers\" href=\"http://localhost/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/james-watson/\">James Watson</a> played a key part. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Human genome project complete at genome.wellcome.ac.uk\" href=\"http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD020713.html\" target=\"_blank\">More about the Human Genome Project</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "2003",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28459",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28456",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28456",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Final human genome sequence complete",
          "JulianDayStart": 2452641,
          "StartDisplay": "2003",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2003",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27698
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn April, an international consortium published an analysis of a high-quality draft sequence covering more than 90 per cent of the genome of the <a class=\"action\" title=\"Rat genome from Nature.com\" href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/ratgenome/\" target=\"_blank\">brown Norway rat</a> in the journal 'Nature'. This was the third mammalian genome to be published (after human and mouse); the laboratory rat's central role in experimental medicine and drug development made it an obvious target. In December another consortium announced a draft sequence of the <a class=\"action\" title=\"Chicken genome from Nature.com\" href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/chickengenome/\" target=\"_blank\">chicken genome</a>, also in 'Nature'. The chicken is also an important lab model for studies of development, immunology and virology, and the opportunity to look for gene sequences common to birds and mammals provided important insights into evolution and gene function. \n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "2004",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28789",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28779",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28779",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Rat and chicken genomes sequenced",
          "JulianDayStart": 2453006,
          "StartDisplay": "2004",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2004",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27707
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nCancer is a genetic disease: tumours result when genetic mistakes build up in cells and cause them to reproduce uncontrollably. Funded simultaneously by the US National Cancer Institute and the Wellcome Trust, the Cancer Genome Atlas and Cancer Genome Project were launched to document genetic variants found in tumour tissue, with the aim of learning more about the biochemical pathways underlying cancers. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Cancer Genome Atlas\" href=\"http://cancergenome.nih.gov/abouttcga\" target=\"_blank\">The Cancer Genome Atlas</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "2005",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28665",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28662",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28662",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "The Cancer Genome Atlas and Cancer Genome Project",
          "JulianDayStart": 2453372,
          "StartDisplay": "2005",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2005",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27718
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe draft genome sequence of the common chimpanzee Pan troglodytes was published in 'Nature' in September. The chimpanzee is the closest living relative to humans, and the chimp sequence provided important insights into evolutionary events such as the development of language. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Chimpanzee genome\" href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v437/n7055/full/nature04072.html\" target=\"_blank\">Read the original paper</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "2005",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28815",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28812",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28812",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Chimpanzee genome sequenced",
          "JulianDayStart": 2453372,
          "StartDisplay": "2005",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2005",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27722
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nIn September, a major project to identify genetic variations that may predispose people to or protect them from common diseases received almost £9 million of funding from the Wellcome Trust. The Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium was a collaborative project to compare common variants in the genomes of 2000 people in the UK with each of seven diseases with a control set of 3000 genomes. The aim was to identify the multiple genes thought to be involved in common diseases such as diabetes, high blood pressure and bipolar disease; additional studies looked at susceptibility to malaria and TB in Africa. Further rounds of funding for such 'genome-wide association studies' in 2008 and 2009 increased the range of diseases under study and involved international partners and large cohorts of patients. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium\" href=\"http://www.wtccc.org.uk/\" target=\"_blank\">The Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "2005",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28775",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28772",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28772",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Wellcome Trust establishes Case Control Consortium",
          "JulianDayStart": 2453372,
          "StartDisplay": "2005",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2005",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27714
      },
      {
          "Body": "Copy number variation refers to differences between people in the form of large chunks of DNA sequence that are either missing or duplicated. Richard Redon at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute and an international team of colleagues reported a global analysis of such differences in 270 people from a variety of ethnic backgrounds, collected as part of the HapMap project. Copy number variants, which often involve sequences that contain genes, are important in understanding the genetic basis of disease.",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "2006",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Global differences in copy number variation reported",
          "JulianDayStart": 2453737,
          "StartDisplay": "2006",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2006",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27728
      },
      {
          "Body": "Following its first genome-wide association studies on 2000 individuals with each of seven conditions, and 3000 shared controls, the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium published robust, independent associations between 24 common genetic variants and diseases including diabetes and Crohn's disease. The effects of each variant were small, indicating that inherited factors in common diseases result from interactions between the activity of very many variant genes or that rare variants have a larger role than previously thought.",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "2007",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "First results from Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium",
          "JulianDayStart": 2454102,
          "StartDisplay": "2007",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2007",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27733
      },
      {
          "Body": "From the first announcement of the Human Genome Project, US civil liberties groups and others had become anxious that people who had their DNA sequenced for research, medical or personal purposes might be discriminated against on genetic grounds. The Genetic Information Non-discrimination Bill, which aimed to protect Americans against discrimination by employers or insurance companies, was debated in Congress for 13 years before being signed into law by President George W Bush in the final year of his presidency.",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "2008",
          "ThumbnailPath": null,
          "FeatureImagePath": null,
          "PromoImagePath": null,
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "George W Bush signs US Genetic Information Non-discrimination Act into law",
          "JulianDayStart": 2454467,
          "StartDisplay": "2008",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2008",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27750
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nCancer researchers worldwide came together to form a consortium, the International Cancer Genome Consortium, to generate comprehensive catalogues of genomic abnormalities in tumours from 50 different types of cancer. The data have been made freely available to the research community. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Interntional Cancer Genome Consortium\" href=\"http://icgc.org/\" target=\"_blank\">International Cancer Genome Consortium</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "2008",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28840",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28837",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28837",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "International Cancer Genome Consortium launched",
          "JulianDayStart": 2454467,
          "StartDisplay": "2008",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2008",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27747
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nScientists working on the Cancer Genome Project at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, led by Dr Mike Stratton, published the complete sequences of tumours taken from a man with malignant melanoma and another man with small-cell lung cancer. By comparing these with healthy tissue from the same individuals, they were able to pinpoint every change that had taken place in the tumour tissue. Some of these would have been harmless, but others were likely to have formed part of the cascade of damage that led to the formation of the tumour. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Cancer Genome Project\" href=\"http://www.sanger.ac.uk/genetics/CGP/\" target=\"_blank\">More about the cancer genome project</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 1,
          "Year": "2009",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28852",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28849",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28849",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "First complete cancer genomes sequenced",
          "JulianDayStart": 2454833,
          "StartDisplay": "2009",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2009",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27753
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nThe US National Institutes of Health and the Wellcome Trust announced a package of support worth $37 million over five years, in partnership with the African Society for Human Genetics, to enable African scientists to extend the benefits of genomic science to African patients. Populations in Africa have greater genetic diversity than those elsewhere, and such variation may be important in their susceptibility to disease or response to treatment. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Human Heredity and Health in Africa\" href=\"http://h3africa.org/\" target=\"_blank\">Human Heredity and Health in Africa</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 2,
          "Year": "2010",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28943",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28939",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28939",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Launch of Human Heredity and Health in Africa (H3Africa)",
          "JulianDayStart": 2455198,
          "StartDisplay": "2010",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2010",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27773
      },
      {
          "Body": "Led by scientists from the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, UK10K was launched to sequence the complete genomes of 4000 people who were participants in previous longitudinal studies, and so had already contributed abundant information about their age, sex, diet, location, family history and so on. These would be compared with partial sequences, focusing on the gene-coding regions, of 6000 individuals with serious conditions including autism, obesity and several rare diseases. The aim was to discover the links between low-frequency and rare genetic changes and the occurrence of disease.",
          "Priority": 3,
          "Year": "2010",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28775",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28772",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28772",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
          "ImageCredit": "",
          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "UK10K launched to discover more rare variants",
          "JulianDayStart": 2455198,
          "StartDisplay": "2010",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2010",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27764
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nHomo neanderthalensis was a species of early human (or a subspecies of Homo sapiens) that lived in Europe and some parts of Asia between 400 000 and 30 000 years ago. In May 2010, a draft genome sequence of DNA obtained from Neanderthal bones that were around 38 000 years old was published by Svante Pääbo and colleagues at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany. Their comparison with modern humans suggested that there was some interbreeding between Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens. \n</p>\n<p><a class=\"action\" title=\"Neanderthal genome\" href=\"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18869-neanderthal-genome-reveals-interbreeding-with-humans.html\" target=\"_blank\">More about the Neanderthal genome</a>\n</p>",
          "Priority": 4,
          "Year": "2010",
          "ThumbnailPath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28992",
          "FeatureImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28989",
          "PromoImagePath": "http://wellcomelibrary.org/content/timelines/history-of-genetics-timeline/images/28989",
          "LinkText": "",
          "LinkTarget": "",
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          "UsedBy": [
            "/21461/fomg/fomg-timeline/",
            "/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/genetics-timeline/"
          ],
          "Title": "Draft Neanderthal genome published",
          "JulianDayStart": 2455198,
          "StartDisplay": "2010",
          "StartDisplayYear": "2010",
          "JulianDayEnd": -9223372036854775808,
          "EndDisplay": null,
          "EndDisplayYear": null,
          "EventId": 27776
      },
      {
          "Body": "\n<p>\nKnown only from a single female finger bone and two teeth found in a cave in Siberia, Denisovans were a species of ancient human, related to but separate from Neanderthals. A new technique for sequencing ancient DNA from the bone was published by an international team in August 2012. They compared the Denisovan genome with Neanderthal and modern human genomes. This way they could chart relationships between the different species and estimated that modern humans diverged genetically from Denisovans and Neanderthals around 800,000 years ago, while this particular Denisovan girl lived about 80,000 years ago. The sequencing method was sufficiently sensitive to show that she would have had dark skin, brown eyes and brown hair. \n</p>\n<p>\t<a class=\"action\" title=\"Denisovan genome\" href=\"http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/news/2012/august/denisovan-dna-suggests-a-dark-complexion-and-interbreeding113697.html\" target=\"_blank\">More about the Denisovan genome<br /></a>\n</p>",
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          "Year": "2012",
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          "Title": "Denisovan genome sequenced",
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